View source for Journalism

{{short description|Investigation and reporting to a broad audience}}
{{redirect|Reportage}}
{{for|the academic journal|Journalism (journal)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date=August 2016}}
{{Journalism sidebar}}
'''Journalism''' is the production and distribution of reports on current events based on [[fact]]s and supported with proof or [[evidence]]. The word journalism applies to the occupation, as well as collaborative media who gather and publish information based on facts and supported with proof or evidence. Journalistic media include print, television, radio, Internet, and, in the past, [[newsreels]].

Concepts of the appropriate role for journalism vary between [[Country|countries]]. In some nations, the [[news media]] are controlled by government intervention and are not fully independent.<ref>"[http://www.cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php 10 Most Censored Countries]," Committee to Protect Journalists, 2 May 2012, page retrieved 23 May 2013.</ref> In others, the news media are independent of the government but instead operate as [[private industry]]. In addition to the varying nature of how media organizations are run and funded, countries may have differing implementations of laws handling the [[freedom of speech]] and [[Libel|libel cases]].

The proliferation of the Internet and [[smartphones]] has brought significant changes to the media landscape since the turn of the 21st century. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through [[e-reader]]s, [[smartphone]]s, and other personal electronic devices, as opposed to the more traditional formats of [[newspaper]]s, [[magazine]]s, or [[News channel|television news channels]]. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues.<ref name=":2">https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/06/01/circulation-and-revenue-fall-for-newspaper-industry/</ref>

==Production==
Journalistic conventions vary by country. In the United States, journalism is produced by media organizations or by individuals. Bloggers are often regarded as journalists. The [[Federal Trade Commission]] requires that bloggers who write about products received as promotional gifts to disclose that they received the products for free. This is intended to eliminate conflicts of interest and protect consumers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ftc.gov/tips-advice/business-center/guidance/ftcs-endorsement-guides-what-people-are-asking|title=The FTC's Endorsement Guides: What People Are Asking|date=7 September 2017|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref>

In the US, many credible news organizations are [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated entities]]; have an editorial board, and exhibit separate editorial and advertising departments. Many credible news organizations, or their employees, often belong to and abide by the ethics of professional organizations such as the [[American Society of News Editors]], the [[Society of Professional Journalists]], [[Investigative Reporters & Editors|Investigative Reporters & Editors, Inc.]], or the [[Online News Association]]. Many news organizations also have their own codes of ethics that guide journalists' professional publications. For instance, ''[[The New York Times]]'' code of standards and ethics<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytco.com/who-we-are/culture/standards-and-ethics/|title=Standards and Ethics|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref> is considered particularly rigorous.{{By whom|date=June 2018}}

When crafting news stories, regardless of the medium, fairness and bias are issues of concern to journalists. Some stories are intended to represent the author's own opinion; others are more neutral or feature balanced points-of-view. In a traditional print newspaper and its online iteration, information is organized into sections. This makes clear the distinction between content based on fact and on opinion. In other media, many of these distinctions break down. Readers should pay careful attention to headings and other design elements to ensure that they understand the journalist's intent. Opinion pieces are generally written by regular columnists or appear in a section titled "Op-ed", while [[feature stories]], breaking news, and [[hard news]] stories typically make efforts to remove opinion from the copy.

According to [[Robert W. McChesney|Robert McChesney]], healthy journalism in a democratic country must provide an opinion of people in power and who wish to be in power, must include a range of opinions and must regard the informational needs of all people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McChesney|first=Robert W.|date=2012-10-01|title=Farewell to Journalism?|journal=Journalism Practice|volume=6|issue=5–6|pages=614–26|doi=10.1080/17512786.2012.683273|s2cid=149010028|issn=1751-2786}}</ref>

Many debates centre on whether journalists are "supposed" to be "objective" and "neutral"; arguments include the fact that journalists produce news out of and as part of a particular social context, and that they are guided by professional codes of ethics and do their best to represent all legitimate points of view. Additionally, the ability to render a subject's complex and fluid narrative with sufficient accuracy is sometimes challenged by the time available to spend with subjects, the affordances or constraints of the medium used to tell the story, and the evolving nature of people's identities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomson|first=T.J.|date=2018|title=The Evolution of Story: How Time and Modality Affect Visual and Verbal Narratives|journal=Visual Communication Quarterly|volume=25: 4|issue=4|pages=199–210|doi=10.1080/15551393.2018.1498742|s2cid=149906671|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/123992/2/The%2520Evolution%2520of%2520Story.pdf}}</ref>

==Forms==
{{Main|Journalism genres}}
There are several forms of journalism with diverse audiences. Thus, journalism is said to serve the role of a "[[fourth estate]]", acting as a [[watchdog journalism|watchdog]] on the workings of the government. A single publication (such as a newspaper) contains many forms of journalism, each of which may be presented in different formats. Each section of a newspaper, magazine, or website may cater to a different audience.{{sfn|Harcup|2009|p=4}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gerald Stone | first1 = Kaye O'Donnell | last2 = Banning | first2 = Stephen A. | year = 1997 | title = Public perceptions of a newspaper's watchdog role | journal = Newspaper Research Journal | volume = 18 | issue = 1–2| pages = 86–102 | doi=10.1177/073953299701800108| s2cid = 107456650 }}</ref>
[[File:Photojournalists photograph President Barack Obama.jpg|thumb|Photojournalists photographing President Barack Obama of the US in November 2013.]] [[File:Suleiman Kova and media, 2013 DSM Building Collapse.jpg|thumb|[[Photojournalism|Photo]] and broadcast journalists interviewing a government official after a [[2013 Dar es Salaam building collapse|building collapse]] in [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]]. March 2013.]]
Some forms include:
<!--PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER-->
* [[Access journalism]] – journalists who self-censor and voluntarily cease speaking about issues that might embarrass their hosts, guests, or powerful politicians or businesspersons.
* [[Advocacy journalism]] – writing to advocate particular viewpoints or influence the opinions of the audience.
* [[Broadcast journalism]] – written or spoken journalism for radio or television.
* [[Business journalism]] - tracks, records, analyzes and interprets the business, economic and financial activities and changes that take place in societies.
* [[Citizen journalism|Citizen journalism – participatory journalism.]]
* [[Data journalism]] – the practice of finding stories in numbers, and using numbers to tell stories. Data journalists may use data to support their reporting. They may also report about uses and misuses of data. The US news organization [[ProPublica]] is known as a pioneer of data journalism.
* [[Drone journalism]] – use of [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drones]] to capture journalistic footage.<ref>{{cite news|last=Corcoran|first=Mark|title=Drone journalism takes off|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-02-21/drone-journalism-takes-off/3840616|access-date=25 March 2012|newspaper=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=21 February 2012}}</ref>
* [[Gonzo journalism]] – first championed by [[Hunter S. Thompson]], gonzo journalism is a "highly personal style of reporting".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Gonzo Journalism|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1069436/gonzo-journalism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>
* [[Interactive journalism]] – a type of online journalism that is presented on the web
* [[Investigative journalism]] – in-depth reporting that uncovers social problems. Often leads to major social problems being resolved.
* [[Photojournalism]] – the practice of telling true stories through images
* [[Political journalism]] -  coverage of all aspects of politics and political science 
* [[Sensor journalism]] – the use of sensors to support journalistic inquiry
* [[Tabloid journalism]] – writing that is light-hearted and entertaining. Considered less legitimate than mainstream journalism.
* [[Yellow journalism]] (or [[sensationalism]]) – writing which emphasizes exaggerated claims or rumors.
* [[Global journalism]] - journalism that encompasses a global outlook focusing on intercontinental issues.

=== Social media ===
The rise of [[social media]] has drastically changed the nature of journalistic reporting, giving rise to so-called [[Citizen journalism|citizen journalists]]. In a 2014 study of journalists in the United States, 40% of participants claimed they rely on social media as a source, with over 20% depending on microblogs to collect facts.<ref name=":0" /> From this, the conclusion can be drawn that breaking news nowadays often stems from user-generated content, including videos and pictures posted online in social media.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.news.indiana.edu/releases/iu/2014/05/2013-american-journalist-key-findings.pdf|title=The American Journalist in the Digital Age: Key Findings|last=Willnat|first=Lars|date=2014}}</ref> However, though 69.2% of the surveyed journalists agreed that social media allowed them to connect to their audience, only 30% thought it had a positive influence on news credibility.<ref name=":0" />

Consequently, this has resulted in arguments to reconsider journalism as a process distributed among many authors, including the socially mediating public, rather than as individual products and articles written by dedicated journalists.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=Sue|year=2011|title="Journalism as Process": The Organizational Implications of Participatory Online News|journal=Journalism & Communication Monographs|volume=13|issue=3|page=137|doi=10.1177/152263791101300302|s2cid=146669105}}</ref>

Because of these changes, the credibility ratings of news outlets has reached an all-time low. A 2014 study revealed that only 22% of Americans reported a "great deal" or "quite a lot of confidence" in either television news or newspapers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heflin|first=Heflin|date=2015|title=The Internet Is Not the Antidote: A Cultural-Historical Analysis of Journalism's Crisis of Credibility and the Internet as a Remedy|journal=Journalism History|doi=10.1080/00947679.2015.12059127|s2cid=147655744}}</ref>

=== Fake news ===
"Fake news" is also deliberately untruthful information which can often spread quickly on social media or by means of [[fake news website]]s. News cannot be regarded as "fake", but [[disinformation]] rather.

It is often published to intentionally mislead readers to ultimately benefit a cause, organization or an individual. A glaring example was the proliferation of fake news in social media during the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 U.S. presidential election]]. Conspiracy theories, hoaxes, and lies have been circulated under the guise of news reports to benefit specific candidates. One example is a fabricated report of [[Hillary Clinton]]'s email which was published by a non-existent newspaper called The Denver Guardian.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-37896753|title=US election: Fake news becomes the news|date=2016-11-07|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-05-26|language=en-GB}}</ref> Many critics blamed Facebook for the spread of such material. Its news feed algorithm, in particular, was identified by [[Vox (website)|Vox]] as the platform where the social media giant exercise billions of editorial decisions every day. Social media platforms such as [[Facebook]], [[Twitter]] and [[TikTok]] are distributors of disinformation or "fake news".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vox.com/new-money/2016/11/6/13509854/facebook-politics-news-bad|title=Mark Zuckerberg is in denial about how Facebook is harming our politics|work=Vox|access-date=2018-05-26}}</ref> [[Mark Zuckerberg]], the CEO of Facebook, has acknowledged the company's role in this problem: in a testimony before a combined Senate Judiciary and Commerce committee hearing on 20 April 2018, he said:<blockquote>It's clear now that we didn't do enough to prevent these tools from being used for harm as well. That goes for fake news, foreign interference in elections, and hate speech, as well as developers and data privacy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2018/04/09/facebook-chief-executive-mark-zuckerberg-to-captiol-hill-it-was-my-mistake-and-im-sorry/|title=Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg to Capitol Hill: 'It was my mistake, and I'm sorry.'|last1=Timberg|first1=Craig|date=2018-04-09|work=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=2018-05-26|last2=Romm|first2=Tony|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref></blockquote>Readers can often evaluate credibility of news by examining the credibility of the underlying news organization.

The phrase was popularized and inaccurately used by [[Donald Trump]] during his [[Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016|presidential campaign]] to discredit what he perceived as negative news coverage of his candidacy and then the presidency.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/5/9/17335306/trump-tweet-twitter-latest-fake-news-credentials|title=Trump finally admits that "fake news" just means news he doesn't like|work=Vox|access-date=2018-11-26}}</ref>

In some countries, including [[Turkey]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey: COVID-19 pandemic increases climate of fear for journalists |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/05/turkey-covid19-pandemic-increases-climate-of-fear-for-journalists/ |work=Amnesty International |date=1 May 2020}}</ref> [[Egypt]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt is more concerned with controlling information than containing the coronavirus |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-egypt-is-more-concerned-with-controlling-information-than-containing/ |work=The Globe and Mail |date=3 April 2020}}</ref> [[India]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Journalists detained, assaulted in India during COVID-19 lockdown |url=https://cpj.org/2020/04/journalists-detained-assaulted-in-india-during-cov.php |work=Committee to Protect Journalists |date=28 April 2020}}</ref> [[Bangladesh]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladeshi journalists, cartoonist, arrested for Covid-19 coverage |url=https://rsf.org/en/news/bangladeshi-journalists-cartoonist-arrested-covid-19-coverage |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |date=14 May 2020}}</ref> [[Iran]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Iran: Press freedom violations recounted in real time January 2020 |url=https://rsf.org/en/news/iran-press-freedom-violations-recounted-real-time-january-2020 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |date=14 May 2020}}</ref> [[Nigeria]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Coronavirus Law Used to Arrest Nigerian Journalist Over Health Story |url=https://www.marketwatch.com/press-release/coronavirus-law-used-to-arrest-nigerian-journalist-over-health-story-2020-04-20?mod=mw_more_headlines&tesla=y |work=Market Watch |date=20 April 2020}}</ref> [[Ethiopia]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethiopia: Free Speech at Risk Amid Covid-19 |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/06/ethiopia-free-speech-risk-amid-covid-19 |work=Human Rights Watch |date=6 May 2020}}</ref> [[Kenya]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Protect Kenya's Journalists Reporting on Covid-19 |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/04/protect-kenyas-journalists-reporting-covid-19 |work=Human Rights Watch |date=4 May 2020}}</ref> [[Cote d’Ivoire]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Authorities across West Africa attacking journalists covering COVID-19 pandemic |url=https://ifex.org/authorities-across-west-africa-attacking-journalists-covering-covid-19-pandemic/ |work=[[IFEX (organization)|IFEX]] |date=22 April 2020}}</ref> [[Montenegro]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Concern for Rights in Montenegro amid COVID-19 Fight |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/03/26/concern-for-rights-in-montenegro-amid-covid-19-fight/ |work=[[Balkan Insight]] |date=26 March 2020}}</ref> [[Kazakhstan]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Kazakh journalists harassed over Covid-19 reporting |url=https://rsf.org/en/news/kazakh-journalists-harassed-over-covid-19-reporting |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |date=30 April 2020}}</ref> [[Azerbaijan]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Azerbaijan: Crackdown on Critics Amid Pandemic |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/16/azerbaijan-crackdown-critics-amid-pandemic |work=Human Rights Watch |date=16 April 2020}}</ref> [[Malaysia]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Malaysian journalist faces six years in prison over COVID-19 Facebook posts |url=https://cpj.org/blog/2020/05/malaysian-journalist-faces-six-years-in-prison-ove.php |work=Committee to Protect Journalists |date=5 May 2020}}</ref> [[Singapore]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Singapore's Fake News and Contempt Laws a Threat to Media, Journalists Say |url=https://www.voanews.com/press-freedom/singapores-fake-news-and-contempt-laws-threat-media-journalists-say |work=[[Voice of America]] |date=6 May 2020}}</ref> [[Philippines]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Some leaders use pandemic to sharpen tools against critics |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/coronavirus-crisis-excuses-curbs-free-speech-70177977 |work=ABC News |date=16 April 2020}}</ref> and [[Somalia]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Somali Journalists Arrested, Intimidated While Covering COVID-19 |url=https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/somali-journalists-arrested-intimidated-while-covering-covid-19 |work=Voice of America |date=18 April 2020}}</ref> journalists have been threatened or [[Misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic#Efforts to combat misinformation|arrested]] for allegedly spreading fake news about the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].

==History==
{{Main|History of journalism}}

=== Antiquity ===
While publications reporting the news to the general public in a standardized fashion only began to appear in the 17th century and later, governments as early as [[Han dynasty|Han dynasty China]] made use of regularly published news bulletins.<ref>Hartmut Walravens: "The Early East Asian Press in the Eyes of the West. Some bibliographical notes", World Library and Information Congress, 72nd General Conference and Council of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea, p. 2</ref> Similar publications were established in the [[Republic of Venice]] in the 16th century.<ref>Infelise, Mario. "Roman Avvisi: Information and Politics in the Seventeenth Century." Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 1492–1700. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2002. 212, 214, 216–17</ref> These bulletins, however, were intended only for government officials, and thus were not journalistic news publications in the modern sense of the term.

=== Early modern newspapers ===
As mass-printing technologies like the [[printing press]] spread, newspapers were established to provide increasingly literate audiences with the news. The first references to privately owned newspaper publishers in [[China]] date to the late [[Ming dynasty]] in 1582.<ref>[[Timothy Brook (historian)|Brook, Timothy]]. (1998). ''[[The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China]]''. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-22154-0}} (Paperback). p. xxi.</ref> [[Johann Carolus]]'s ''Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien'', published in 1605 in [[Strassburg]], is often recognized as the first [[newspaper]] in Europe. The first successful English daily, the ''[[Daily Courant]]'', was published from 1702 to 1735.<ref>{{cite web |title=First Journalism School |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia |page=1}}</ref> While journalistic enterprises were started as private ventures in some regions, such as [[The Holy Roman Empire]] and the [[British Empire]], other countries such as [[France]] and [[Prussia]] kept tighter control of the press, treating it primarily as an outlet for government propaganda and subjecting it to uniform [[censorship]]. Other governments, such as the [[Russian Empire]], were even more distrusting of the journalistic press and effectively banned journalistic publications until the mid-19th century.<ref>Nurit Schleifman, "A Russian Daily Newspaper and Its New Readership:" Severnaia Pchela", 1825–1840." ''Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique'' (1987): 127–44</ref> As newspaper publication became a more and more established practice, publishers would increase publication to a weekly or daily rate. Newspapers were more heavily concentrated in cities that were centres of trade, such as [[Amsterdam]], [[London]], and [[Berlin]]. The first newspapers in Latin America would be established in the mid-to-late 19th century.

==== News media and the revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries ====
Newspapers played a significant role in mobilizing popular support in favor of the [[Liberalism|liberal]] revolutions of the late 18th and 19th centuries. In the [[Thirteen Colonies|American Colonies]], newspapers motivated people to revolt against British rule by publishing grievances against the British crown and republishing pamphlets by revolutionaries such as [[Thomas Paine]],<ref>William Sloan and Julie Hedgepeth Williams, ''The early American press, 1690–1783'' (1994)</ref><ref>Vaughn, ed., ''Encyclopedia of American Journalism'' (2008), pp. 17–21</ref> while [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] publications motivated support against the [[American Revolution]].<ref>Carol Sue Humphrey, ''This popular engine: New England newspapers during the American Revolution, 1775–1789'' (1992)</ref> News publications in the [[United States]] would remain proudly and publicly [[Partisan (political)|partisan]] throughout the 19th century.<ref>Richard L. Kaplan, ''Politics and the American press: The rise of objectivity, 1865–1920'' (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p. 78.</ref> In France, political newspapers sprang up during the [[French Revolution]], with ''[[L'Ami du peuple]]'', edited by [[Jean-Paul Marat]], playing a particularly famous role in arguing for the rights of the revolutionary lower classes. [[Napoleon]] would reintroduce strict censorship laws in 1800, but after his reign print publications would flourish and play an important role in political culture.<ref>Keith Michael Baker, et al., ''The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture: The transformation of the political culture, 1789–1848'' (1989).</ref> As part of the [[Revolutions of 1848]], radical liberal publications such as the ''Rheinische Zeitung, Pesti Hírlap,'' and ''[[Morgenbladet]]'' would motivate people toward deposing the [[aristocratic]] governments of [[Central Europe]].<ref>Sperber, Jonathan, ''Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848'' (Princeton, 1991), p. 99;</ref> Other liberal publications played a more moderate role: ''The Russian Bulletin'' praised [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II of Russia's]] liberal reforms in the late 19th century, and supported increased political and economic freedoms for peasants as well as the establishment of a [[Duma|parliamentary system]] in Russia.<ref>Daniel Balmuth, ''"The Russian Bulletin," 1863–1917: A Liberal Voice in Tsarist Russia'' (2000)</ref> Farther to the [[Left politics|left]], [[Socialism|socialist]] and [[Communism|communist]] newspapers had wide followings in France, Russia and Germany despite being outlawed by the government.<ref>Charles A. Ruus, ''Fighting Words: Imperial Censorship and the Russian Press, 1804–1906'' (1982).</ref><ref>Franz Osterroth, Dieter Schuster: ''Chronik der deutschen Sozialdemokratie.'' J.H.W. Dietz Nachf., Hannover 1963, S. 50. fes.de. German text</ref><ref>John Tebbel (2003). "Print Media. France". ''Encyclopedia Americana''. Retrieved 1 November2014.</ref>

=== Early 20th century ===
====China====
{{Further|History of journalism#China}}
Journalism in China before 1910 primarily served the international community. The ''[[1911 Revolution|overthrow of the old imperial regime in 1911]]'' produced a surge in Chinese nationalism, an end to censorship, and a demand for professional, nation-wide journalism.<ref>Stephen MacKinnon, "Toward a History of the Chinese Press in the Republican Period", ''Modern China'' 23#1 (1997) pp. 3–32</ref> All the major cities launched such efforts. By the late 1920s, however, there was a much greater emphasis on advertising and expanding circulation, and much less interest in the sort of advocacy journalism that had inspired the revolutionaries.<ref>Timothy B. Weston, "China, professional journalism, and liberal internationalism in the era of the First World War." ''Pacific Affairs'' 83.2 (2010): 327–47.</ref>

====France====
{{Main|History of French journalism}}
The Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the ''[[World War I|First World War]]''; circulation inched up to six million a day from five million in 1910. The major postwar success story was ''[[Paris-Soir|Paris Soir]]''; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939 its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid ''Le Petit Parisien.'' In addition to its daily paper ''Paris Soir'' sponsored a highly successful women's magazine ''Marie-Claire.'' Another magazine ''[[Paris Match|Match]]'' was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine ''Life.''
<ref>Hutton 2:692–94</ref>

====Great Britain====
{{Main|History of journalism in the United Kingdom}}
By 1900 popular journalism in Britain aimed at the largest possible audience, including the working class, had proven a success and made its profits through advertising. [[Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe]] (1865–1922), "More than anyone... shaped the modern press. Developments he introduced or harnessed remain central: broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control.<ref>P.P. Catterall and Colin Seymour-Ure, "Northcliffe, Viscount." in John Ramsden, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century British Politics'' (2002) p. 475.</ref> His ''[[Daily Mail]]'' held the world record for daily circulation until his death. Prime Minister [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]] quipped it was "written by office boys for office boys".<ref>''Oxford Dictionary of Quotations'' (1975).</ref>

==== India ====
{{Main|History of Indian journalism}}
The first newspaper of India, [[Hicky's Bengal Gazette]], was published on 29 January 1780. This first effort at journalism enjoyed only a short stint yet it was a momentous development, as it gave birth to modern journalism in India. Following Hicky's efforts which had to be shut down just within two years of circulation, several English newspapers started publication in the aftermath. Most of them enjoyed a circulation figure of about 400 and were weeklies giving personal news items and classified advertisements about a variety of products. Later on, in the 1800s, English newspapers were started by Indian publishers with English-speaking Indians as the target audience. During that era vast differences in language was a major problem in facilitating smooth communication among the people of the country. This is because they hardly knew the languages prevalent in other parts of this vast land. However, English came as the ''''lingua franca'''' for everyone from across the country. Notable among this breed is the one named 'Bengal Gazette' started by Gangadhar Bhattacharyya in 1816.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}

==== United States ====
{{Main|History of American journalism}}
The late 19th and early 20th century in the [[United States]] saw the advent of media empires controlled by the likes of [[William Randolph Hearst]] and [[Joseph Pulitzer]]. Realizing that they could expand their audience by abandoning politically polarized content, thus making more money off of [[Advertisement|advertising]], American newspapers began to abandon their partisan politics in favor of less political reporting starting around 1900.<ref>Richard Lee Kaplan, ''Politics and the American press: the rise of objectivity, 1865–1920'' (2002) p. 76</ref> Newspapers of this era embraced sensationalized reporting and larger headline typefaces and layouts, a style that would become dubbed "[[yellow journalism]]". Newspaper publishing became much more heavily professionalized in this era, and issues of writing quality and workroom discipline saw vast improvement.<ref>Frank Luther Mott, ''American Journalism: A History, 1690–1960'' (Macmillan, 3rd ed. 1962) pp. 603–05</ref> This era saw the establishment of [[freedom of the press]] as a legal norm, as President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] tried and failed to sue newspapers for reporting [[corruption]] in his handling of the purchase of the [[Panama Canal]].<ref>Mott, ''American Journalism'' (3rd ed, 1962) pp. 605–08.</ref> Still, critics note that although government's ability to suppress journalistic speech is heavily limited, the concentration of newspaper (and general media) ownership in the hands of a small number of private business owners leads to other biases in reporting and media self-censorship that benefits the interests of [[corporation]]s and the government.<ref>[[Chris Hedges|Hedges, Chris]] (2009). ''Empire of Illusion: The End of Literacy and the Triumph of Spectacle.'' Nation Books. {{ISBN|1-56858-613-2}} p. 146.</ref><ref>[[Howard Zinn|Zinn, Howard]]. ''A People's History of the United States''. New York: [[HarperCollins|Harper Perennial Modern Classics]], 2005. p. 671 {{ISBN|0-06-083865-5}}</ref><ref>Scammell, Margaret; [[Holli Semetko|Semetko, Holli]] (11/22/2017). ''The Media, Journalism, and Democracy'' (1st ed.). London: Routiedge. p. 482. {{ISBN|978-1-351-74711-0}}.</ref>

===== African-American press =====
The rampant discrimination and segregation against African-Americans led to the founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities. While the first [[African Americans|Black]] newspapers in America were established in the early 19th century,<ref>Charles A. Simmons, ''The African American press: a history of news coverage during national crises, with special reference to four black newspapers, 1827–1965'' (McFarland, 2006)</ref> in the 20th century these newspapers truly flourished in major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included [[Robert Sengstacke Abbott]] (1870–1940), publisher of the [[Chicago Defender]]; [[John Mitchell, Jr.]] (1863–1929), editor of the ''Richmond Planet'' and president of the National Afro-American Press Association; [[Anthony Overton]] (1865–1946), publisher of the [[Chicago Bee]], and [[Robert Lee Vann]] (1879–1940), the publisher and editor of the [[Pittsburgh Courier]].<ref>Patrick S. Washburn, ''The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom'' (2006).</ref>

==== Writing for experts or for ordinary citizens{{anchor|Lippmann-Dewey}} ====
[[File:Walter Lippmann 1914.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Walter Lippmann]] in 1914]]

In the 1920s in the United States, as newspapers dropped their blatant partisanship in search of new subscribers, political analyst [[Walter Lippmann]] and philosopher [[John Dewey]] debated the role of journalism in a democracy.<ref>Noortje Marres, "The issues deserve more credit: Pragmatist contributions to the study of public involvement in the controversy." ''Social studies of science'' 37.5 (2007): 759–80.</ref> Their differing philosophies still characterize an ongoing debate about the role of journalism in society. Lippmann's views prevailed for decades, helping to bolster the Progressives' confidence in decision-making by experts, with the general public standing by. Lippmann argued that high-powered journalism was wasted on ordinary citizens, but was of genuine value to an elite class of administrators and experts.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Davis "Buzz" Merritt|author2=Maxwell E. McCombs|title=The Two W's of Journalism: The Why and What of Public Affairs Reporting|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0GRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|page=21|isbn=978-1-135-70471-1}}</ref> Dewey, on the other hand, believed not only that the public was capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, but also that it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. The danger of demagoguery and false news did not trouble Dewey. His faith in popular democracy has been implemented in various degrees, and is now known as "[[community journalism]]".<ref>Carl Bybee, "Can democracy survive in the post-factual age?: A return to the Lippmann-Dewey debate about the politics of news." ''Journalism & Communication Monographs'' 1.1 (1999): 28–66.</ref> The 1920s debate has been endlessly repeated across the globe, as journalists wrestle with their roles.<ref>Alfred Hermida, et al. "The active recipient: Participatory journalism through the lens of the Dewey-Lippmann debate." ''International Symposium on Online Journalism'' 1#2 (2011).</ref>



'''Radio'''

[[Radio broadcasting]] increased in popularity starting in the 1920s, becoming widespread in the 1930s. While most radio programming was oriented toward music, sports, and entertainment, radio also broadcast speeches and occasional news programming. Radio reached the peak of its importance during [[World War II]], as radio and [[newsreel]]s were the two main sources of up-to-date information on the ongoing war. {{dubious|date=November 2018}} {{citation needed|date=November 2018}} In the [[Soviet Union]], radio would be heavily utilized by the state to broadcast political speeches by leadership. These broadcasts would very rarely have any additional editorial content or analysis, setting them apart from modern news reporting.<ref>Stephen Lovell, "Broadcasting Bolshevik: The radio voice of Soviet culture, 1920s–1950s." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 48.1 (2013): 78–97.</ref> The radio would however soon be eclipsed by [[broadcast television]] starting in the 1950s.

=== Television ===
{{Main|News broadcasting}}
Starting in the 1940s, [[United States]] broadcast television channels would air 10-to-15-minute segments of news programming one or two times per evening. The era of live-TV news coverage would begin in the 1960s with the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], broadcast and reported to live on a variety of nationally syndicated television channels. During the 60s and 70s, television channels would begin adding regular morning or midday news shows. Starting in 1980 with the establishment of [[CNN]], news channels began providing 24-hour news coverage, a format which persists through today.

=== Digital age ===
[[File:Msc 2008-Saturday, 09.00 - 11.00 Uhr-Moerk001 Sa.jpg|thumb|Journalists at a [[press conference]]]]
The role and status of journalism, as well as mass media, has undergone changes over the last two decades, together with the advancement of digital technology and publication of news on the [[Internet]]. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through [[e-readers]], [[smartphones]], and other electronic devices. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues.<ref name=":2" />

Notably, in the American media landscape, [[newsroom]]s have reduced their staff and coverage as traditional media channels, such as television, grappling with declining audiences. For example, between 2007 and 2012, [[CNN]] edited its story packages into nearly half of their original time length.<ref name="State">"[http://stateofthemedia.org/2013/overview-5/ "The State of the News Media 2013: An Annual Report in American Journalism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826025836/http://stateofthemedia.org/2013/overview-5/ |date=26 August 2017 }}", the Pew Research Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism, 2 May 2012. Retrieved 23 May 2013.</ref>

The compactness in coverage has been linked to broad audience attrition.<ref name="State" /> According to the Pew Research Center, the circulation for U.S. newspapers has fallen sharply in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/06/01/circulation-and-revenue-fall-for-newspaper-industry/|title=Despite subscription surges for largest U.S. newspapers, circulation and revenue fall for industry overall|date=1 June 2017|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref> The digital era also introduced journalism that ordinary citizens play a greater role in the process, with the rise of [[citizen journalism]] being possible through the Internet. Using video camera-equipped smartphones, active citizens are now enabled to record footage of news events and upload them onto channels like [[YouTube]] (which is often discovered and used by mainstream news media outlets). News from a variety of online sources, like [[blogs]] and other social media, results in a wider choice of official and unofficial sources, rather than only traditional media organizations.

[[File:Cosplayers at Comicdom 2012 in Athens, Greece grant interviews to the MTV television channel 21.JPG|thumb|Journalists interviewing a [[cosplay]]er]]

===Demographics in 2016===
A worldwide sample of 27,500 journalists in 67 countries in 2012-2016 produced the following profile:<ref>Thomas Hanitzsch, et al. eds. ''Worlds of Journalism: Journalistic Cultures around the Globe'' (2019) pp. 73–74. [https://www.amazon.com/Worlds-Journalism-Journalistic-Cultures-Institute/dp/0231186436/ see excerpt]</ref>

* 57 percent male;
* Mean age of 38
* Mean years of experience:13
* College degree: 56 percent; graduate degree: 29 percent
* 61 percent specialized in journalism/communications at college
* 62 percent identified as generalists and 23 percent as hard-news beat journalists
* 47 percent were members of a professional association
* 80 percent worked full-time
* 50 percent worked in print, 23 percent in television, 17 percent in radio, and 16 percent online.

==Ethics and standards==
{{main|Journalism ethics and standards}}

[[File:News photographers and reporters wait outside Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis' apartment.jpg|thumb|News photographers and reporters waiting behind a police line in [[New York City]], in May 1994]]
While various existing codes have some differences, most share common elements including the principles of – [[truth]]fulness, [[accuracy]], [[objectivity (journalism)|objectivity]], impartiality, fairness and public accountability – as these apply to the acquisition of newsworthy information and its subsequent dissemination to the public.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fourth Estate – Core Journalism Principles, Standards and Practices|url=https://www.fourthestate.org/core-journalism-principles/|publisher=Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corporation|access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ifj.org/en/articles/status-of-journalists-and-journalism-ethics-ifj-principles IFJ (International Federation of Journalists) – Declaration of Principles on the Conduct of Journalists] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114075747/http://www.ifj.org/en/articles/status-of-journalists-and-journalism-ethics-ifj-principles |date=14 November 2012 }} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20081130181610/http://www.ifj.org/assets/docs/060/151/2bcb53c-c641f97.doc DOC version)]
</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asne.org/kiosk/archive/principl.htm |title=ASNE (American Society of Newspapers Editors) – Statement of Principles |access-date=2013-03-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605161914/http://www.asne.org/kiosk/archive/principl.htm |archive-date=5 June 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apme.com/ethics/ |title=APME (Associated Press Managing Editors) – Statement of Ethical Principles |date=2008-06-22 |access-date=2013-03-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622123407/http://www.apme.com/ethics/ |archive-date=22 June 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp |title=(Society of Professional Journalists) – Code of Ethics |publisher=SPJ |access-date=2013-03-01}}</ref>

[[Bill Kovach]] and Tom Rosenstiel propose several guidelines for journalists in their book ''The Elements of Journalism''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journalism.org/node/72|title=The Elements of Journalism: What Newspeople Should Know and the Public Should Expect – Introduction &#124; Project for Excellence in Journalism (PEJ)|date=2006-06-19|publisher=Journalism.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002000433/http://www.journalism.org/node/72|archive-date=2 October 2013|access-date=2013-02-23}}
</ref>
Their view is that journalism's first loyalty is to the citizenry and that journalists are thus obliged to tell the truth and must serve as an independent monitor of powerful individuals and institutions within society. In this view, the essence of journalism is to provide citizens with reliable information through the discipline of verification.

Some journalistic Codes of Ethics, notably the European ones,<ref>[http://assembly.coe.int//main.asp?link=http://assembly.coe.int/documents/adoptedtext/ta93/ERES1003.HTM Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe – Resolution 1003 (1993) on the ethics of journalism] (see clause 33) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626122000/http://assembly.coe.int//Main.asp?link=http%3A%2F%2Fassembly.coe.int%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta93%2Feres1003.htm |date=26 June 2009 }}</ref> also include a concern with [[discrimination|discriminatory]] references in news based on [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[religion]], [[sexual orientation]], and physical or mental [[disability|disabilities]].<ref>[http://www.pcc.org.uk/cop/practice.html UK – Press Complaints Commission – Codes of Practice] (see item 12, "Discrimination") {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214011756/http://www.pcc.org.uk/cop/practice.html |date=14 December 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fnsi.it/Contenuto/Documentazione/CarteDeontologiche/Carta_dei_Doveri.htm |title=Italy – FNSI's La Carta dei Doveri (The Chart of Duties) |access-date=2012-12-24 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412103717/http://www.fnsi.it/Contenuto/Documentazione/CarteDeontologiche/Carta_dei_Doveri.htm |archive-date=12 April 2008 |language=it}} (section "Principi")</ref><ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://www.fape.es/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=101&Itemid=120 Spain – FAPE's Código Deontológico (Deontological Code)] (see ''Principios Generales'', item 7, "a")</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fenaj.org.br/federacao/cometica/codigo_de_etica_dos_jornalistas_brasileiros.pdf |title= Brazil – FENAJ's Code of Ethics |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091003115513/http://www.fenaj.org.br/federacao/cometica/codigo_de_etica_dos_jornalistas_brasileiros.pdf |archive-date= 3 October 2009|language=pt}}&nbsp;{{small|(20.8&nbsp;KB)}} (see Article 6, item XIV)</ref> The [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]] approved in 1993 Resolution 1003 on the Ethics of Journalism which recommends journalists to respect the [[presumption of innocence]], in particular in cases that are still ''[[sub judice]]''.<ref>[http://assembly.coe.int//main.asp?link=http://assembly.coe.int/documents/adoptedtext/ta93/ERES1003.HTM PACE Resolution 1003 (1993) on the Ethics of Journalism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626122000/http://assembly.coe.int//Main.asp?link=http%3A%2F%2Fassembly.coe.int%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta93%2Feres1003.htm |date=26 June 2009 }} (see clause 22)</ref>

In the UK, all newspapers are bound by the Code of Practice of the [[Independent Press Standards Organisation]]. This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring accuracy. However, the Media Standards Trust has criticized the PCC, claiming it needs to be radically changed to secure the public trust of newspapers.

This is in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumption of balance or objectivity.

Because of the pressure on journalists to report news promptly and before their competitors, factual errors occur more frequently than in writing produced and edited under less time pressure. Thus a typical issue of a major daily newspaper may contain several corrections of articles published the previous day. Perhaps the most famous journalistic mistake caused by time pressure was the [[Dewey Defeats Truman]] edition of the [[Chicago Daily Tribune]], based on early election returns that failed to anticipate the actual result of the 1948 US presidential election.

=== Codes of ethics ===
There are over 242 codes of ethics in journalism that vary across various regions of the world.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|date=2016-03-01|title=Ethical convergence, divergence or communitas? An examination of public relations and journalism codes of ethics|journal=Public Relations Review|language=en|volume=42|issue=1|pages=146–60|doi=10.1016/j.pubrev.2015.08.001|issn=0363-8111|last1=Yang|first1=Aimei|last2=Taylor|first2=Maureen|last3=Saffer|first3=Adam J}}</ref> The codes of ethics are created through an interaction of different groups of people such as the public and journalists themselves. Most of the codes of ethics serve as a representation of the economic and political beliefs of the society where the code was written.<ref name=":02" /> Despite the fact that there are a variety of codes of ethics, some of the core elements present in all codes are: remaining objective, providing the truth, and being honest.<ref name=":02" />

Journalism does not have a universal [[code of conduct]]; individuals are not legally obliged to follow a certain set of rules like a doctor or a lawyer does.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wilson-Smith|first=Anthony|date=3 August 1998|title=The Conflict of Journalists|url=http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=a001e71b-a816-42a1-8f25-61e48b50fcf4%40sessionmgr102&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=911611&db=a9h|journal=Maclean's|pages=11|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> There have been discussions for creating a universal code of conduct in journalism. One suggestion centers on having three claims for [[credibility]], justifiable consequence, and the claim of [[humanity (virtue)|humanity]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Ward|first=Stephen|date=5 March 2018|title=Philosophical Foundations for Global Journalism Ethics|journal=Journal of Mass Media Ethics|volume=20|pages=3–21|doi=10.1207/s15327728jmme2001_2|s2cid=144636048}}</ref> Within the claim of credibility, journalists are expected to provide the public with reliable and trustworthy information, and allowing the public to question the nature of the information and its acquisition. The second claim of justifiable consequences centers on weighing the benefits and detriments of a potentially harmful story and acting accordingly. An example of justifiable consequence is exposing a professional with dubious practices; on the other hand, acting within justifiable consequence means writing compassionately about a family in mourning. The third claim is the claim of humanity which states that journalists are writing for a global population and therefore must serve everyone globally in their work, avoiding smaller loyalties to country, city, etc.<ref name=":1" />

==Legal status==
{{Main|Freedom of the press|Media law}}
[[File:Turkish journalists protesting imprisonment of their colleagues in 2016.jpg|thumb|Turkish journalists protesting [[Media freedom in Turkey|imprisonment of their colleagues]] on [[Human Rights Day]], 10 December 2016]]
[[File:10.1177 0022343316680859-fig1.gif|thumb|Number of journalists reported killed between 2002 and 2013<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gohdes|first1=AR|last2=Carey|first2=SC|title=Canaries in a coal-mine? What the killings of journalists tell us about future repression|journal=Journal of Peace Research|date=March 2017|volume=54|issue=2|pages=157–74|pmid=28546646|doi=10.1177/0022343316680859|pmc=5427995}}</ref>]]
Governments have widely varying policies and practices towards journalists, which control what they can research and write, and what press organizations can publish. Some governments guarantee the freedom of the press; while other nations severely restrict what journalists can research or publish.

Journalists in many nations have some privileges that members of the general public do not, including better access to public events, crime scenes and press conferences, and to extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the public eye.

Journalists who elect to cover [[War|conflicts]], whether [[war]]s between nations or [[insurgency|insurgencies]] within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not giving up their rights to protection from the government. Journalists who are captured or detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to their national government. Many governments around the world target journalists for intimidation, harassment, and violence because of the nature of their work.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Freedom Online|url=http://www.cpj.org/|publisher=Committee to Protect Journalists}}</ref>

===Right to protect confidentiality of sources===
{{Main|Protection of sources}}

Journalists' interaction with sources sometimes involves [[confidentiality]], an extension of freedom of the press giving journalists a legal protection to keep the identity of a [[confidential informant]] private even when demanded by police or prosecutors; withholding their sources can land journalists in contempt of court, or in jail.

In the United States, there is no right to protect sources in a [[Federal government of the United States|federal]] court. However, federal courts will refuse to force journalists to reveal their sources, unless the information the court seeks is highly relevant to the case and there's no other way to get it. State courts provide varying degrees of such protection. Journalists who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in [[contempt of court]] and fined or jailed. On the journalistic side of keeping sources confidential, there is also a risk to the journalist's credibility because there can be no actual confirmation of whether the information is valid. As such it is highly discouraged for journalists to have confidential sources.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Citizen Journalism]]
* [[Fourth Estate]]
* [[Glossary of journalism]]
* [[Hallin's spheres]]
* [[History of American newspapers]]
* [[History of journalism]]
* [[Journalism education]] and [[Journalism school]]
* [[Journalism ethics and standards]]
* [[Journalism genres]]
* [[Lists of journalists]]
* [[List of journalism awards]]
* [[Non-profit journalism]]
* [[Objectivity (journalism)]]
* [[Sensor journalism]]
* [[Sports journalism]]
{{div col end}}

===Reviews===
* ''[[American Journalism Review]]''
* ''[[Columbia Journalism Review]]''
* ''[[Health News Review]]''
* ''[[Ryerson Review of Journalism]]''

===Academic journals===
* ''[[Journalism Practice]]''
* ''[[Journalism Studies]]''
* ''[[Journalism (journal)|Journalism]]''
* ''[[Digital Journalism (journal)|Digital Journalism]]''

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
* {{citation|last=Harcup |first=Tony |title=Journalism: Principles and Practice |year=2009 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |isbn=978-1-84787-250-0 |oclc=280437077 |location=[[Thousand Oaks, California]]}}

==Further reading==
* de Beer Arnold S. and John C. Merrill, eds. ''Global Journalism: Topical Issues and Media Systems'' (5th ed. 2008)
* Hanitzsch, Thomas et al. eds. ''Worlds of Journalism: Journalistic Cultures around the Globe'' (2019) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=55340 online review]
* Kaltenbrunner, Andy and Matthias Karmasin and Daniela Kraus, eds. "The Journalism Report V: Innovation and Transition", Facultas, 2017
* Quick, Amanda C. ed. ''World Press Encyclopedia: A Survey of Press Systems Worldwide'' (2nd ed. 2 vol 2002); 2500 pp; highly detailed coverage of every country large and small.
* Shoemaker, Pamela J. and Akiba A. Cohen, eds. ''News Around the World: Content, Practitioners, and the Public'' (2nd ed. 2005)
* {{cite book|author=Sloan, W. David and Lisa Mullikin Parcell, eds. |title=American Journalism: History, Principles, Practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rziNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR5|year=2002|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5155-5}}
* Sterling, Christopher H. (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of journalism'', *(6 vol, SAGE, 2009.

==External links==
{{Wikiversity|Video journalism}}
{{Sister project links|b=no|v=School:Journalism|voy=no|d=no|species=no|s=no|commons=Category:Journalism|wikt=journalism|n=Category:Journalism}}
* {{Curlie|News/Journalism/Organizations}}

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