View source for Köppen climate classification

{{Short description|Climate classification system}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}

The '''Köppen climate classification''' divides Earth's climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal [[precipitation]] and temperature. The five main groups are ''A'' ([[Tropical climate|tropical]]), ''B'' ([[Desert climate|arid]]), ''C'' ([[Temperate climate|temperate]]), ''D'' ([[Continental climate|continental]]), and ''E'' ([[Polar climate|polar]]). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned a main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in the ''E'' group are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example, ''Af'' indicates a [[tropical rainforest climate]]. The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in the ''A'' group, indicated by the third letter for climates in ''B'', ''C'', ''D'', and the second letter for climates in ''E''. Other examples include: ''Cfb'' indicating an [[oceanic climate]] with warm summers as indicated by the ending ''b'', while ''Dwb'' indicates a semi-[[Monsoon continental climate|monsoonal continental climate]], also with warm summers. Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type.<ref name="kottek2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Kottek |first1=Markus |last2=Grieser |first2=Jürgen |last3=Beck |first3=Christoph |last4=Rudolf |first4=Bruno |last5=Rubel |first5=Franz |date=2006 |title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated |url=https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/files/40083/metz_Vol_15_No_3_p259-263_World_Map_of_the_Koppen_Geiger_climate_classification_updated_55034.pdf |journal=Meteorologische Zeitschrift |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=259–263 |bibcode=2006MetZe..15..259K |doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130}}</ref>

The Köppen climate classification is the most widely used [[climate classification]] scheme.<ref>{{cite web |title=EnergyPlus™ Version 24.2.0 Documentation: Auxiliary Programs |url=https://energyplus.net/assets/nrel_custom/pdfs/pdfs_v24.2.0/AuxiliaryPrograms.pdf |website=EnergyPlus |access-date=22 January 2025 |page=52 |date=4 October 2024}}</ref> It was first published by German-Russian [[climate science|climatologist]] [[Wladimir Köppen]] (1846–1940) in 1884,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Köppen |first=Wladimir |date=1884 |title=Die Wärmezonen der Erde, nach der Dauer der heissen, gemässigten und kalten Zeit und nach der Wirkung der Wärme auf die organische Welt betrachtet |trans-title=The thermal zones of the earth according to the duration of hot, moderate and cold periods and to the impact of heat on the organic world) |url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/koeppen.htm |url-status=live |journal=Meteorologische Zeitschrift |publication-date=2011 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=351–360 |bibcode=2011MetZe..20..351K |doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2011/105 |s2cid=209855204 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908130507/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/koeppen.htm |archive-date=8 September 2016 |access-date=2 September 2016 |translator1-first=E. |translator1-last=Volken |translator2-first=S |translator2-last=Brönnimann}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rubel |first1=F. |last2=Kottek |first2=M |date=2011 |title=Comments on: 'The thermal zones of the Earth' by Wladimir Köppen (1884) |journal=Meteorologische Zeitschrift |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=361–365 |bibcode=2011MetZe..20..361R |doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2011/0285}}</ref> with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1918 |title=Klassification der Klimate nach Temperatur, Niederschlag and Jahreslauf |encyclopedia=Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen |last=Köppen |first=Wladimir |volume=64 |pages=193–203, 243–248 |via=koeppen-geiger.Vu-Wien.ac.at/Koeppen.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1936 |title=Das geographische System der Klimate |publisher=Borntraeger |location=Berlin |url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/Koppen_1936.pdf |access-date=2 September 2016 |last=Köppen |first=Wladimir |editor-last=Köppen |editor-first=Wladimir |volume=1 |trans-title=The geographic system of climates |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304135236/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/Koppen_1936.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |section=C |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=Geiger (publisher)}}</ref> Later, German climatologist [[Rudolf Geiger]] (1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which is thus sometimes called the '''Köppen–Geiger climate classification'''.<ref>{{Citation |last=Geiger |first=Rudolf |title=Klassifikation der Klimate nach W. Köppen |date=1954 |work=Landolt-Börnstein – Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik, alte Serie |volume=3 |pages=603–607 |trans-title=Classification of climates after W. Köppen |place=Berlin |publisher=Springer |mode=cs1}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Geiger |first=Rudolf |title=Überarbeitete Neuausgabe von Geiger, R.: Köppen-Geiger / Klima der Erde |date=1961 |mode=cs1}} (Wandkarte 1:16 Mill.) – Klett-Perthes, Gotha.</ref>

As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a [[botanist]], his main climate groups represent a classification by vegetation type. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its association with the plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes of plant life within that region.<ref name=" Beck"/>

The Köppen climate classification system was modified further within the [[Trewartha climate classification]] system in 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined [[Middle latitudes|middle latitude]] climate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the climate group C was too general).<ref name="McKnight">{{Cite book |last1=McKnight |first1=Tom L |url=https://archive.org/details/physicalgeographmckn |title=Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation |last2=Hess |first2=Darrel |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-13-020263-5 |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |chapter=Climate Zones and Types |chapter-url=https://www.seaclean.no |url-access=registration |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|200–201}}

[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 World 1991–2020.svg|thumb|center|upright=3|Köppen–Geiger climate map 1991–2020<ref name="Beck">{{Cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |author-link6=Eric Franklin Wood |date=30 October 2018 |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |volume=5 |article-number=180214 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |issn=2052-4463 |pmc=6207062 |pmid=30375988}}</ref>
{|
|- valign=top |
|
{{legend|#0000FE|[[tropical rainforest climate|Af]]}}
{{legend|#0077FF|[[tropical monsoon climate|Am]]}}
{{legend|#46A9FA|[[tropical savanna climate|Aw]]}}
{{legend|#79BAEC|[[tropical savanna climate|As]]}}
| width=10 |
|
{{legend|#FE0000|[[hot desert climate|BWh]]}}
{{legend|#FE9695|[[cold desert climate|BWk]]}}
{{legend|#F5A301|[[hot semi-arid climate|BSh]]}}
{{legend|#FFDB63|[[cold semi-arid climate|BSk]]}}
| width=5 |
|
{{legend|#FFFF00|[[hot-summer Mediterranean climate|Csa]]}}
{{legend|#C6C700|[[warm-summer Mediterranean climate|Csb]]}}
{{legend|#969600|[[Mediterranean climate#Cold-summer Mediterranean climate|Csc]]}}
| width=5 |
|
{{legend|#96FF96|[[humid subtropical climate|Cwa]]}}
{{legend|#63C764|[[subtropical highland climate|Cwb]]}}
{{legend|#329633|[[subtropical highland climate|Cwc]]}}
| width=5 |
|
{{legend|#C6FF4E|[[humid subtropical climate|Cfa]]}}
{{legend|#66FF33|[[oceanic climate|Cfb]]}}
{{legend|#33C701|[[subpolar oceanic climate|Cfc]]}}
| width=5 |
|
{{legend|#FF00FE|[[humid continental climate|Dsa]]}}
{{legend|#C600C7|[[humid continental climate|Dsb]]}}
{{legend|#963295|[[subarctic climate|Dsc]]}}
{{legend|#966495|[[subarctic climate|Dsd]]}}
| width=5 |
|
{{legend|#ABB1FF|[[humid continental climate|Dwa]]}}
{{legend|#5A77DB|[[humid continental climate|Dwb]]}}
{{legend|#4C51B5|[[subarctic climate|Dwc]]}}
{{legend|#320087|[[subarctic climate|Dwd]]}}
| width=5 |
|
{{legend|#00FFFF|[[humid continental climate|Dfa]]}}
{{legend|#38C7FF|[[humid continental climate|Dfb]]}}
{{legend|#007E7D|[[subarctic climate|Dfc]]}}
{{legend|#00455E|[[subarctic climate|Dfd]]}}
| width=5 |
|
{{legend|#B2B2B2|[[tundra climate|ET]]}}
{{legend|#686868|[[ice cap climate|EF]]}}
|}
]]
{{TOC left}}
{{clear}}

== Overview ==
{{see|List of cities by Köppen climate classification}}

{|class="wikitable plainlist" style="margin:auto;"
|+ Köppen climate classification scheme symbols description table<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="kottek2006" /><ref name="Peel">{{Cite journal |last1=Peel |first1=M. C. |last2=Finlayson |first2=B. L. |last3=McMahon |first3=T. A. |name-list-style=amp |year=2007 |title=Updated world map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification |url=https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.pdf |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=1633–1644 |bibcode=2007HESS...11.1633P |doi=10.5194/Hess-11-1633-2007 |issn=1027-5606 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
!scope="col"| 1st
!scope="col"| 2nd
!scope="col"| 3rd
|-
! scope="row" | A (Tropical)
|
*f (Rainforest)
*m (Monsoon)
*w (Savanna, dry winter)
*s (Savanna, dry summer)
|
|-
! scope="row" | B (Dry)
|
*W (Arid desert)
*S (Semi-arid steppe)
|
*h (Hot)
*k (Cold)
|-
! scope="row" | C (Temperate)
|
*w (Dry winter)
*f (No dry season)
*s (Dry summer)
|
*a (Hot summer)
*b (Warm summer)
*c (Cold summer)
|-
! scope="row" | D (Continental)
|
*w (Dry winter)
*f (No dry season)
*s (Dry summer) 
|
*a (Hot summer)
*b (Warm summer)
*c (Cold summer)
*d (Very cold winter)
|-
! scope="row" | E (Polar)
|
*T (Tundra)
*F (Ice cap)
|
|}

The Köppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups: ''A'' (tropical), ''B'' (arid), ''C'' (temperate), ''D'' (continental), and ''E'' (polar).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Koppen climate classification {{!}} climatology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Koppen-climate-classification |access-date=4 August 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804183630/https://www.britannica.com/science/Koppen-climate-classification |archive-date=4 August 2017}}</ref> The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type, while the third letter indicates the level of heat.<ref name="hanschen">{{Cite web |last1=Chen |first1=Hans |last2=Chen |first2=Deliang |author-link2=Chen Deliang |title=Köppen climate classification |url=http://hanschen.org/koppen/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814145617/http://hanschen.org/koppen/ |archive-date=14 August 2017 |access-date=4 August 2017 |website=hanschen.org}}</ref> Summers are defined as the six-month period that is warmer either from April to September or October to March, while winter is the six-month period that is cooler.<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" />

===Group A: Tropical climates===

[[Tropical climate]]s have an average temperature of {{convert|18|°C|°F|1}} or higher every month of the year, with significant precipitation.<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" />
* ''Af'' = [[Tropical rainforest climate]]; average precipitation of at least {{convert|60|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} in every month.
* ''Am'' = [[Tropical monsoon climate]]; driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with precipitation less than {{convert|60|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, but at least <math display="inline">100-\left ( \frac{\mathrm{total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)}}{25} \right )</math>.<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" />
* ''Aw'' or ''As'' = Tropical wet and dry or [[Tropical savanna climate|savanna]] climate; with the driest month having precipitation less than {{convert|60|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} and less than <math display="inline">100-\left ( \frac{\mathrm{total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)}}{25} \right )</math>.<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" />

===Group B: Desert and semi-arid climates===
[[File:Mitchell grass downs post rain Boulia Shire Queensland P1070007.jpg|thumb|right|Semi-arid grassland, [[Queensland]], [[Australia]]]]

[[Desert climate|Desert]] and [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] climates are defined by low precipitation in a region that does not fit the polar (EF or ET) criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}.

The precipitation threshold in millimeters is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature in [[Celsius]] by 20, then adding:{{ordered list |type=lower-alpha
| 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months (April–September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October–March in the Southern), or
| 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer, or
| 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer.}}

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS ([[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]]: steppe climate).<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" />

A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climates (average annual temperature above {{convert|18|°C|°F|1}}) while k signifies middle-latitude climates (average annual temperature less than 18&nbsp;°C). In addition, n is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes.<ref name="Cereceda" /><ref name="gepchile">{{Cite web |title=Clasificación climática de Köppen |url=http://www.gep.uchile.cl/Biodiversidad/medio_fisico/clima_01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122045953/http://www.gep.uchile.cl/Biodiversidad/medio_fisico/clima_01.html |archive-date=22 January 2018 |access-date=21 January 2018 |publisher=University of Chile |language=es}}</ref><ref name="Inzunza">{{Cite web |last=Inzunza |first=Juan |title=Capitulo 15. Climas de Chile |url=http://nimbus.com.uy/weather/Cursos/Curso_2006/Textos%20complementarios/Meteorologia%20descriptiva_Inzunza/cap15_Inzunza_Climas%20de%20Chile.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122051833/http://nimbus.com.uy/weather/Cursos/Curso_2006/Textos%20complementarios/Meteorologia%20descriptiva_Inzunza/cap15_Inzunza_Climas%20de%20Chile.pdf |archive-date=22 January 2018 |access-date=22 January 2018 |website=Meteorología Descriptiva y Aplicaciones en Chile |page=427 |language=es}}</ref>
* ''BWh'' = [[Hot desert climate]]
* ''BWk'' = [[Cold desert climate]]
* ''BSh'' = [[Hot semi-arid climate]]
* ''BSk'' = [[Cold semi-arid climate]]

===Group C: Temperate climates===
[[File:West Penwith Coast2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cornwall]], UK, has a temperate oceanic climate]]

[[Temperate climate]]s have the coldest month averaging between {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}}<ref name="Peel" /> (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}})<ref name="kottek2006" /> and {{convert|18|°C|°F|1}} and at least one month averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}.<ref name="Peel" /><ref name="kottek2006" /> For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer (Cs) and a dry winter (Cw), a location is considered to have a wet summer (Cw) when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer (Cs) when more precipitation falls within the winter months.<ref name=Peel/> This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well.<ref name=Peel/>
* ''Cfa'' = [[Humid subtropical climate]]; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), at least one month's average temperature above {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
* ''Cfb'' = Temperate [[oceanic climate]] or [[subtropical highland climate]]; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), all months with average temperatures below {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
* ''Cfc'' = [[Subpolar oceanic climate]]; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}) and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
* ''Cwa'' = [[Monsoon]]-influenced humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), at least one month's average temperature above {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
* ''Cwb'' = [[Subtropical highland climate]] or Monsoon-influenced temperate oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), all months with average temperatures below {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
* ''Cwc'' = Cold [[subtropical highland climate]] or Monsoon-influenced subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}) and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
* ''Csa'' = [[Hot-summer Mediterranean climate]]; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), at least one month's average temperature above {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than {{convert|40|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Beck" />
* ''Csb'' = [[Warm-summer Mediterranean climate]]; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), all months with average temperatures below {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than {{convert|40|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Beck" />
* ''Csc'' = [[Mediterranean climate#Cold-summer Mediterranean climate|Cold-summer Mediterranean climate]]; coldest month averaging above {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}) and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than {{convert|40|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Beck" />

===Group D: Continental climates===
[[File:Chenarivervalley.jpg|thumb|right|[[Boreal forest]] in [[Alaska]] has a subarctic climate]]

[[Continental climate]]s have at least one month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}) and at least one month averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}.<ref name="Peel" /><ref name="kottek2006" />
* ''Dfa'' = Hot-summer [[humid continental climate]]; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), at least one month's average temperature above {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
* ''Dfb'' = Warm-summer [[humid continental climate]]; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), all months with average temperatures below {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
* ''Dfc'' = [[Subarctic climate]]; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}) and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
* ''Dfd'' = Extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below {{convert|−38|°C|°F|1}} and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
* ''Dwa'' = Monsoon-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), at least one month's average temperature above {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
* ''Dwb'' = Monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), all months with average temperatures below {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}}, and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
* ''Dwc'' = Monsoon-influenced [[subarctic climate]]; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}) and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
* ''Dwd'' = Monsoon-influenced extremely cold [[subarctic climate]]; coldest month averaging below {{convert|−38|°C|°F|1}} and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
* ''Dsa'' = [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]]-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), average temperature of the warmest month above {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}} and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than {{convert|40|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Beck" />
* ''Dsb'' = Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}), average temperature of the warmest month below {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}} and at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than {{convert|40|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Beck" />
* ''Dsc'' = Mediterranean-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}) and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than {{convert|40|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Beck" />
* ''Dsd'' = Mediterranean-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below {{convert|−38|°C|°F|1}} and 1–3 months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than {{convert|40|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Beck" />

===Group E: Polar and alpine climates===

[[Polar climate|Polar]] and [[alpine climate]]s has every month of the year with an average temperature below {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}.<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" />
* ''ET'' = [[Tundra climate]]; average temperature of warmest month between {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}} and {{convert|10|°C|°F|0}}.<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" />
* ''EF'' = [[Ice cap climate]]; eternal winter, with all 12 months of the year with average temperatures below {{convert|0|°C|°F|0}}.<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" />

== Group A: Tropical/megathermal climates ==
[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_A_1991–2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Tropical climate distribution]]
[[Tropical climate]]s are characterized by constant high temperatures (at sea level and low elevations); all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18&nbsp;°C (64.4&nbsp;°F) or higher; and generally high annual precipitation. They are subdivided as follows:

=== ''Af'': Tropical rainforest climate ===
{{Main|Tropical rainforest climate}}

All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least {{Convert|60|mm|abbr=on}}. These climates usually occur within 10° latitude of the [[equator]]. This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes.<ref name="McKnight" /> When it is dominated most of the year by the [[doldrums]] low-pressure system due to the presence of the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]] (ITCZ) and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial. When the [[trade winds]] dominate most of the year, the climate is a tropical trade-wind rainforest climate.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Estienne |first1=Pierre |title=Climatologie |last2=Godard |first2=Alain |publisher=Éditions Armand Colin |isbn=2-200-31042-0 |pages=308–323 |language=fr |chapter=Chapitre XVI}}</ref>

Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]], from [[Ecuador]] to [[Costa Rica]]; see, for instance, [[Andagoya]], Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at [[Palembang]], Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at [[Sitiawan]], Malaysia). Among these places, some have a pure equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo, Pontianak, and Singapore) with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes (Davao, Ratnapura, Victoria).{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}

(The term [[season|aseasonal]] refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics, but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature, but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or groundwater. Plant response (e.g., [[phenology]]), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America, the 'rainy season' (and the 'high water season') is called {{lang|es|[[rainy season|invierno]]}} (Spanish) or {{lang|pt|inverno}} (Portuguese), though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season (and 'low water season') is called {{lang|es|[[dry season|verano]]}} or {{lang|pt|verão}}, and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter).{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}

=== ''Am'': Tropical monsoon climate ===
{{Main|Tropical monsoon climate}}
This type of climate results from the [[monsoon]] winds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than {{convert|60|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, but at least <math display="inline">100-\left (\frac{\mathrm{total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)}}{25} \right)</math> of average monthly precipitation.<ref name="McKnight" />{{rp|208}}

=== ''Aw/As'': Tropical savanna climate ===
{{Main|Tropical savanna climate}}[[File:Elephant herd (5912064891).jpg|thumb|right|Aerial photograph of [[elephant]]s in the tropical savanna, [[Boma National Park|Boma-Jonglei]], [[South Sudan]]]]

==== ''Aw'': Tropical savanna climate with dry winters ====

''Aw'' climates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than {{convert|60|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} and less than <math display="inline">100-\left (\frac{\mathrm{total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)}}{25} \right)</math> of average monthly precipitation.<ref name="McKnight" />{{rp|208–211}}

Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the [[tropical]] zone from the low teens to the mid-20s latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g., [[San Marcos, Antioquia]], Colombia) also qualifies. The [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] coast, eastward from the [[Gulf of Urabá]] on the [[Colombia]]–[[Panama]] border to the [[Orinoco River]] delta, on the [[Atlantic Ocean]] (about {{Convert|4000|km|abbr=on}}), have long dry periods (the extreme is the ''BWh'' climate, characterized by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in the [[Guajira Peninsula|Guajira]], and [[Coro region|Coro]], western [[Venezuela]], the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive <{{Convert|300|mm|abbr=on}} total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months).

This condition extends to the [[Lesser Antilles]] and [[Greater Antilles]] forming the circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon River—which flows eastward, just south of the [[equator]]ial line—the climate is ''Af''. East from the [[Andes]], between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco River's [[Llanos]] or [[savanna]]s, from where this climate takes its name.

==== ''As'': Tropical savanna climate with dry summers ====

Sometimes ''As'' is used in place of ''Aw'' if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer).<ref name="kottek2006" /><ref name="nwskoppen">{{Cite web |title=JetStream Max: Addition Köppen-Geiger Climate Subdivisions |url=https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/climate_max |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224025419/https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/climate_max |archive-date=24 December 2018 |access-date=24 December 2018 |publisher=National Weather Service}}</ref> This is the case in parts of [[Hawaii]], northwestern Dominican Republic, Eastern Africa, southeast India and northeast Sri Lanka, and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In places that have this climate type, the dry season occurs during the time of high sun and longer days generally because of [[rain shadow]] effects.

== Group B: Arid (desert and semi-arid) climates ==
{{Main|Desert climate|Semi-arid climate}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_B_1991–2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Arid climate]] distribution]]

These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates the [[potential evapotranspiration]].<ref name="McKnight" />{{rp|212}} The threshold value (in millimeters) is calculated as follows:

Multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add{{ordered list|type=lower-alpha
| 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or
| 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or
| 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received.}}

According to the modified Köppen classification system used by modern climatologists, total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high-sun half of the year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Critchfield, H.J. |year=1983 |title=Criteria for classification of major climatic types in modified Köppen system |url=http://snow.cals.uidaho.edu/Clim_Map/koppen_criteria.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930221104/http://snow.cals.uidaho.edu/Clim_Map/koppen_criteria.htm |archive-date=30 September 2009 |publisher=University of Idaho |edition=4}}</ref>

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is ''BW'' (arid: [[desert climate]]); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is ''BS'' (semi-arid: [[semi-arid climate|steppe climate]]).

A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, ''h'' signifies low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18&nbsp;°C) while ''k'' signified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18&nbsp;°C).

Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized by [[Fog desert|frequent fog]] and low clouds, although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received, can be labeled ''BWn'' with the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog.<ref name="Cereceda">{{Cite journal |last1=Cereceda |first1=P. |last2=Larrain |first2=H. |last3=osses |first3=P. |last4=Farias |first4=M. |last5=Egaña |first5=I. |year=2008 |title=The climate of the coast and fog zone in the Tarapacá Region, Atacama Desert, Chile |journal=Atmospheric Research |volume=87 |issue=3–4 |pages=301–311 |bibcode=2008AtmRe..87..301C |doi=10.1016/j.atmosres.2007.11.011 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10533/139314}}</ref><ref name="gepchile" /><ref name="Inzunza" /> An equivalent ''BSn'' category can be found in foggy coastal steppes.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2017 |title=Atlas Agroclimático de Chile–Estado Actual y Tendencias del Clima (Tomo I: Regiones de Arica Y Parinacota, Tarapacá y Antofagasta |url=http://www.agrimed.cl/atlas/tomo1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222105247/http://www.agrimed.cl/atlas/tomo1.html |archive-date=22 December 2018 |access-date=9 December 2018 |publisher=Universidad de Chile |language=es}}</ref>

=== ''BW'': Arid climates ===
{{main|Desert climate}}
[[File:Namibská poušť - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|Namib Desert]]

The desert climate or arid climate (''BW'') is a [[dry climate]] sub-type in which there is a severe excess of [[evaporation]] over [[precipitation]]. The typically bald, rocky, or sandy surfaces in desert climates are dry and hold little moisture, quickly evaporating the already little rainfall they receive. Covering 14.2% of Earth's land area, hot deserts are the second-most common type of climate on Earth after the [[Polar climate]].<ref name="peel et al">{{cite journal |last1=Peel |first1=M.C. |last2=Finlayson |first2=B.L. |last3=McMahon |first3=T.A. |title=Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification |url=https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=1633–1644 |year=2007 |access-date=2019-05-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202204538/https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.pdf |archive-date=2019-12-02 |bibcode=2007HESS...11.1633P |doi=10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

There are two variations of a [[desert]] climate: a hot desert climate (''BWh''), and a cold desert climate (''BWk''). To delineate "hot desert climates" from "cold desert climates", a mean annual temperature of {{cvt|18|C|1}} is used as an isotherm so that a location with a ''BW'' type climate with the appropriate temperature above this isotherm is classified as "hot arid subtype" (''BW'''h'''''), and a location with the appropriate temperature below the isotherm is classified as "cold arid subtype" (''BW'''k''''').

Most desert/arid climates receive between {{cvt|25|and|200|mm|0}} of rainfall annually,<ref>{{cite book |title=Deserts and Desert Environments |first=Julie J. |last=Laity |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2009 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtAbzLLTcwcC&pg=PR5 |isbn=978-1-4443-0074-1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-01 |title=What is a Desert Climate? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-desert-climate.html |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US |archive-date=2021-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226192324/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-desert-climate.html |url-status=live }}</ref> although some of the most consistently hot areas of [[Central Australia]], the [[Sahel]] and [[Guajira Peninsula]] can be, due to extreme [[potential evapotranspiration]], classed as arid with the annual rainfall as high as {{convert|430|mm|in|0|disp=or}}.

==== ''BWh'': Hot deserts ====
Hot desert climates (''BWh'') are typically found under the [[subtropical ridge]] in the lower middle latitudes or the [[subtropics]], often between 20° and 33° north and south latitudes. In these locations, stable descending air and high pressure aloft clear clouds and create hot, arid conditions with intense sunshine. Hot desert climates are found across vast areas of [[North Africa]], [[West Asia]], northwestern parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]], southwestern Africa, interior Australia, the [[Southwestern United States]], northern [[Mexico]], the coast of [[Peru]] and [[Chile]], parts of the Brazilian [[sertão]] and the southeastern coast of [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/MapasclimaticosdeEspana19912020.pdf|title=Spain climate maps 1991-2020|access-date=28 March 2025|publisher=Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia|language=es}}</ref> This makes hot deserts present in every continent except Antarctica. At the time of high sun (summer), scorching, desiccating heat prevails. Hot-month average temperatures are normally between {{cvt|29|and|35|C}}, and midday readings of {{convert|43–46|C|F}} are common.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

==== ''BWk'': Cold deserts ====
[[File:Snow Comes to the Atacama Desert.jpg|thumb|Rare snow in the [[Atacama Desert]], at {{cvt|2600|m|ft}} elevation]]
Cold desert climates (''BWk'') usually feature hot (or warm in a few instances), dry summers, though summers are not typically as hot as hot desert climates. Unlike hot desert climates, cold desert climates tend to feature cold, dry winters. Snow tends to be rare in regions with this climate. The [[Gobi Desert]] in northern China and Mongolia is one example of a cold desert. Though hot in the summer, it shares the freezing winters of the rest of [[Inner Asia]]. Summers in South America's [[Atacama Desert]] are mild, with only slight temperature variations between seasons. Cold desert climates are typically found at higher altitudes than hot desert climates and are usually drier than hot desert climates. Cold desert climates are typically located in temperate zones in the 30s and 40s latitudes, usually in the leeward [[rain shadow]] of high mountains, restricting precipitation from the westerly winds.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

=== ''BS'': Semi-arid (steppe) climates ===
{{main|Semi-arid climate}}
[[File:BS climate.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Regions with semi-arid climates]]

A semi-arid or steppe climate is a [[aridity|dry climate]] sub-type. It is located on regions that receive [[precipitation]] below [[Evapotranspiration#Potential evapotranspiration|potential evapotranspiration]], but not as low as a [[desert climate]]. There are different kinds of semi-arid climates, depending on variables such as temperature, and they give rise to different [[biome]]s.

==== ''BSh'': Hot semi-arid ====
Hot semi-arid climates (type "BSh") tend to be located from the high teens to mid-30s latitudes of the [[tropics]] and [[subtropics]], typically in proximity to regions with a [[tropical savanna climate]] or a [[humid subtropical climate]]. These climates tend to have hot, or sometimes extremely hot, summers and warm to cool winters, with some to minimal precipitation. Hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found around the fringes of subtropical deserts.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

==== ''BSk'': Cold semi-arid ====
Cold semi-arid climates (type "BSk") tend to be located in elevated portions of [[temperate zones]] generally from the mid-30s to low 50s latitudes, typically bordering a [[humid continental climate]] or a [[Mediterranean climate]]. They are also typically found in continental interiors some distance from large bodies of water. Cold semi-arid climates usually feature warm to hot dry summers, though their summers are typically not quite as hot as those of hot semi-arid climates. Unlike hot semi-arid climates, areas with cold semi-arid climates tend to have cold and possibly freezing winters. These areas usually see some [[snowfall]] during the winter, though snowfall is much lower than at locations at similar latitudes with more humid climates.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

== Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates ==
{{Main|Temperate climate}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 C 1991–2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Temperate climate]] distribution]]

In the Köppen climate system, temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above {{convert|0|°C|°F}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}, as noted previously) in their coldest month but below {{convert|18|°C|°F|1}}. The average temperature of {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}} roughly coincides with the equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more.

The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern—''w'' indicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation). ''s'' indicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer. ''f'' means significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above-mentioned set of conditions fulfilled).<ref name="Beck" />

The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat—''a'' indicates warmest month average temperature above {{convert|22|°C|°F|1}} while ''b'' indicates warmest month averaging below 22&nbsp;°C but with at least four months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|1}}, and ''c'' indicates one to three months averaging above {{convert|10|°C|°F|1}}.<ref name="Beck" /><ref name="Peel" /><ref name="kottek2006" />

===''Cs'': Mediterranean-type climates===
{{Main|Mediterranean climate}}
[[File:Blue_Lagoon_-_2014.10_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|Aegean Sea at [[Ölüdeniz]], Turkey]]

==== ''Csa'': Hot-summer Mediterranean climates ====

These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°.<ref>{{Cite web |last=George |first=Melvin R. |title=Mediterranean Climate |url=http://californiarangeland.ucdavis.edu/Mediterranean_Climate/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304235950/http://californiarangeland.ucdavis.edu/Mediterranean_Climate/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=26 January 2015 |website=UCRangelands |publisher=University of California}}</ref> These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high-pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring [[fog]] but prevent rain.<ref name="McKnight" />{{rp|221–223}}

==== ''Csb'': Warm-summer Mediterranean climates ====
Dry-summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas where the warmest month average temperatures do not reach {{convert|22|C|1}}, most often in the 40s latitudes. These climates are classified as ''Csb''.<ref name="Beck" />

==== ''Csc'': Cold-summer Mediterranean climates ====
Cold summer Mediterranean climates (''Csc'') exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to coastal ''Csb'' climate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below {{Convert|0|°C|abbr=on}}. This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere.<ref name="McKnight" /> Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii.

=== ''Cfa'': Humid subtropical climates ===
{{Main|Humid subtropical climate}}
[[File:漓江山水.jpg|thumb|Humid subtropical climate in [[Li River]], China]]
These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents, usually in the high 20s and 30s latitudes. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season.

The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent and strong but short-lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southeast United States, southern China, and Japan.<ref name="McKnight" />{{rp|223–226}}

=== ''Cfb'': Oceanic climates ===
{{main|Oceanic climate}}
==== Marine west coast climate ====
''Cfb'' climates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates in the 40s and 50s latitudes. However, in southeast Australia, southeast South America, and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates, on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68°N in Norway.

These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents. Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy, and frequently wet. ''Cfb'' climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rainforest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "highlands".<ref name="McKnight" />{{rp|226–229}}

==== Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall ====
{{main|Oceanic climate#Subtropical highland variety (Cfb, Cwb)}}
Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (''Cfb'') are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands of [[Australia]], such as in or around the [[Great Dividing Range]] in the north of the state of [[New South Wales]], and also sparsely in other continents, such as in [[South America]], among others. Unlike a typical ''Cwb'' climate, they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. They have characteristics of both the ''Cfb'' and ''Cfa'' climates, but unlike these climates, they have a high [[diurnal temperature variation]] and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high [[elevation]].

=== ''Cfc'': Subpolar oceanic climate ===
Subpolar oceanic climates (''Cfc'') occur poleward of or at higher elevations than the maritime temperate climates and are mostly confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such coasts. They occur in both hemispheres, generally in the high 50s and 60s latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere and the 50s latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.<ref name="McKnight" />

=== ''Cw'': Dry-winter subtropical climates ===

====''Cwa'': Dry-winter humid subtropical climate====
''Cwa'' is a monsoonal influenced version of the [[humid subtropical climate]], having the classic dry winter–wet summer pattern associated with tropical monsoonal climates. They are found at similar latitudes as the ''Cfa'' climates, except in regions where monsoons are more prevalent. These regions are in the [[Southern Cone]] of South America, the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic Plain]] of South Asia, southeastern Africa, parts of East Asia and Mexico, and [[Northern Vietnam]] of Southeast Asia.

==== ''Cwb'': Dry-winter subtropical highland climate ====
Dry-winter subtropical highland climate (''Cwb'') is a type of climate mainly found in highlands inside the tropics of [[Central America]], [[South America]], [[Africa]], and [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]] or areas in the subtropics. Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be very rainy. In the tropics, the monsoon is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure.

==== ''Cwc'': Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climate ====
Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climates (''Cwc'') exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to ''Cwb'' climates. This climate is rare and is found mainly in isolated locations mostly in the Andes in Bolivia and Peru, as well as in sparse mountain locations in Southeast Asia.

== Group D: Continental/microthermal climates ==
{{Main|Continental climate}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 D 1991–2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Continental climate]] distribution]]

These climates have an average temperature above {{Convert|10|°C|abbr=on}} in their warmest months, and the coldest month average below {{Convert|0|°C|abbr=on}} (or {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}}, as noted previously). These usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N. In the Southern Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only in some highland locations.

=== ''Dfa/Dwa/Dsa'': Hot summer humid continental climates ===

{{Main|Hot-summer humid continental climate}}
[[File:Odori_Park_Sapporo_Snow_Festival_2007.JPG|thumb|upright|The snowy city of [[Sapporo]], Japan, has a humid continental climate (''Dfa'')]]
''Dfa'' climates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of greater than {{convert|22|C}}. In Europe, these climates tend to be much drier than in North America. ''Dsa'' exists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (''Csa'') climates.<ref name="McKnight" />{{rp|231–32}}

These climates exist only in the Northern Hemisphere because the Southern Hemisphere has no large landmasses isolated from the moderating effects of the sea within the middle latitudes.

In eastern Asia, ''Dwa'' climates extend further south into the mid-30s latitudes due to the influence of the Siberian high-pressure system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because of [[monsoon]] circulation.

=== ''Dfb/Dwb/Dsb'': Warm summer humid continental/hemiboreal climates ===
{{Main|Warm-summer humid continental climate}}
''Dfb'' climates are immediately poleward of hot summer continental climates, generally in the high 40s and low 50s latitudes in North America and Asia, and also extending to higher latitudes into the high 50s and low 60s latitudes in central and eastern Europe, between the maritime temperate and continental subarctic climates.<ref name="McKnight" />

Like with all Group D climates, ''Dwb'' climates mostly only occur in the northern hemisphere.

''Dsb'' arises from the same scenario as ''Dsa'', but at even higher altitudes or latitudes, and chiefly in North America, since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia.

=== ''Dfc/Dwc/Dsc'': Subarctic/boreal climates ===
{{Main|Subarctic climate}}
''Dfc'', ''Dsc'' and ''Dwc'' climates occur poleward of the other group D climates, or at higher altitudes, generally in the 50s and 60s latitudes.<ref name="McKnight" />{{rp|232–235}}

==={{anchor|Dfd}}{{anchor|Dwd}}{{anchor|Dsd}}''Dfd/Dwd/Dsd'': Subarctic/boreal climates with severe winters===
Places with this climate have severe winters, with the temperature in their coldest month lower than {{Convert|−38|°C|abbr=on}}. These climates occur only in eastern [[Siberia]], and are the second coldest, before EF. The coldest recorded temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere belonged to this climate. The names of some of the places with this climate have become veritable synonyms for the extreme, severe winter cold.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 August 2017 |title=Climate Types: Types of Climate {{!}} Climatology |url=https://www.geographynotes.com/climate/types/climate-types-types-of-climate-climatology/5506 |access-date=17 June 2022 |website=Geography Notes}}</ref>

== Group E: Polar climates ==
[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_E_1991–2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Polar climate]] distribution]]
In the Köppen climate system, polar climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month being below {{Convert|10|°C|abbr=on}}. Polar climates are further divided into two types, tundra climates and icecap climates:

=== ''ET'': Tundra climate ===
{{main article|Tundra climate}}
[[Tundra climate]] (''ET''): warmest month has an average temperature between {{Convert|0|°C|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|10|°C|abbr=on}}. These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land masses (generally north of 70 °N although they may be found farther south depending on local conditions), and on nearby islands. ''ET'' climates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic Convergence, and at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line.

=== ''EF'': Ice cap climate ===
{{main article|Ice cap climate}}
[[File:Denman Glacier.jpg|thumb|right|[[Denman Glacier]], Antarctica]]
[[Ice cap climate]] (''EF''): this climate is dominant in Antarctica, inner [[Greenland]], and summits of many high mountains, even at lower latitudes. Monthly average temperatures never exceed {{Convert|0|°C|abbr=on}}.

== Ecological significance ==
=== Biomass ===
The Köppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions identified by the Köppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map the geographic distribution of long-term climate and associated ecosystem conditions.<ref name="Chen">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=D. |last2=Chen |first2=H. W. |year=2013 |title=Using the Köppen classification to quantify climate variation and change: An example for 1901–2010 |url=http://hanschen.org/uploads/Chen_and_Chen_2013_envdev.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Environmental Development |volume=6 |pages=69–79 |doi=10.1016/j.envdev.2013.03.007 |bibcode=2013EnvDe...6...69C |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031103425/http://hanschen.org/uploads/Chen_and_Chen_2013_envdev.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2014 |access-date=29 October 2014}}</ref>

=== Climate change ===
Over recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time.<ref name="hanschen" /> The most important ecological significance of the Köppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation type based on the climatic data and vice versa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Critchfield |first=Howard J |title=General Climatology |date=1983 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-81-203-0476-5 |edition=4th |location=New Delhi |pages=154–161}}</ref>

In 2015, a [[Nanjing University]] paper published in ''Scientific Reports'' analyzing climate classifications found that between 1950 and 2010, approximately 5.7% of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder classifications to drier and hotter classifications. The authors also found that the change "cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chan, D. |last2=Wu, Q. |date=2015 |title=Significant anthropogenic-induced changes of climate classes since 1950 |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=5 |article-number=13487 |bibcode=2015NatSR...513487C |doi=10.1038/srep13487 |pmc=4551970 |pmid=26316255 |number=13487}}</ref>

A 2018 study provides detailed maps for present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |date=30 October 2018 |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=180214 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |issn=2052-4463 |pmc=6207062 |pmid=30375988 |s2cid=53111021|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20220929235513/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Present-and-future-K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger-climate-maps-at-Beck-Zimmermann/81429b2682936e40bea504e03b23c345de4be087|archive-date=2022-09-29}}</ref>

== Other Köppen climate maps ==
All maps use the ≥{{Convert|0|°C|abbr=on}} definition for the temperate-continental border.<ref name="Beck" />
<gallery mode="packed" style="text-align:center">
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_North_America_1991–2020.svg|North America
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Europe_1991–2020.svg|Europe
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_RUS_1991–2020.svg|Russia
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Central_Asia_1991–2020.svg|Central Asia
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Eastern_Asia_1991–2020.svg|East Asia
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_South_America_1991–2020.svg|South America
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Africa_1991–2020.svg|Africa
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Western_Asia_1991–2020.svg|Western Asia
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Southern_Asia_1991–2020.svg|South Asia
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Southeastern_Asia_1991–2020.svg|Southeast Asia
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Melanesia_1991–2020.svg|Melanesia/Oceania
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_AUS_1991–2020.svg|Australia
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_NZL_1991–2020.svg|New Zealand
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_World_1991–2020.svg|World (1991–2020)
File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_World_2071–2099_SSP245.svg|World (2071–2099, SSP245)
</gallery>
<!-- Try wikitable
{| class="wikitable" style="background:white;"
|-
| rowspan="2" style="width:20em;" colspan="2" | [[File:North America map of Köppen climate classification.svg|frameless|upright=1.4667|Köppen map of North America]]
| rowspan="2" style="width:15em;" colspan="2" | [[File:Europe map of Köppen climate classification.svg|frameless|upright=1.1|Köppen map of Europe]]
| rowspan="3" style="width:28em;" colspan="2" | [[File:Asia Koppen Map.png|frameless|upright=2.0|Köppen map of Asia]]
|
| rowspan="4" | [[File:World Koppen Classification (without labels and title).svg|frameless|upright=2.7|World Koppen Classification (without labels and title)]]
|-
|
|-
| rowspan="2" style="width:15em;" | [[File:South America map of Köppen climate classification.svg|frameless|upright=1|Köppen map of South America]]
| rowspan="2" style="width:15em;" colspan="2" | [[File:Africa map of Köppen climate classification.svg|frameless|upright=1|Köppen map of Africa]]
| colspan="1" style="width:5em;" | [[File:Middle East map of Köppen climate classification.svg|frameless|upright=.4|Köppen map of Middle East]]
|
|-
| colspan="2" style="width:18em;" |
| colspan="1" style="width:5em;" | [[File:Oceania map of Köppen climate classification.svg|frameless|upright=.7|Köppen map of Australia/Oceania]]
|
|}
-->

== See also ==
* [[Trewartha climate classification]]
* [[Hardiness zone]]
* [[Holdridge life zones]]
* [[List of cities by Köppen climate classification]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Köppen-Geiger}}
* [https://360.org/climate/koppen-classification/ World maps and graphs plus a video about the Köppen climate classification]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100906034159/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/ World Map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification for the period 1951–2000] (archived 6 September 2010)
*{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110084254/http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/globgrids/KC_classification_en.asp |date=10 January 2021 |title=New gridded maps of Koeppen's climate classification (July 2006)}}

=== Climate records ===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160418082322/http://www.ipcc-data.org/maps/ IPCC Data Distribution Center] (archived 18 April 2016)

{{Köppen}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Koppen Climate Classification}}
[[Category:Köppen climate types| ]]