Constitution of India

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Template:Infobox constitution Template:Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is the supreme legal document of India, and the longest written national constitution in the world.[1][2][3][4] The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens.

It espouses constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy found in the United Kingdom, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament) and was adopted with a declaration in its preamble. The Indian Constitution does not contain a provision to limit the powers of the parliament to amend the constitution. However, the Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala held that there were certain features of the Constitution so integral to its functioning and existence that they could never be cut out of the constitution (known as the 'Basic Structure' Doctrine).

The Government of India Act 1935, mainly drafted by Samuel Hoare,[5] provided the basis for the constitution of India. The Constituent Assembly of India adopted the constitution on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950.[6] It became the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament, in Article 395.[7] India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.[8]

The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular,[9] and democratic republic, assures its citizens justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity.[10] The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a nitrogen-filled case at the Parliament Library Building in New Delhi.[11][12]

Background

Samuel Hoare
Samuel Hoare significantly drafted the Government of India Act 1935 which formed the basis for the Indian constitution.
A smiling Babasaheb Ambedkar and Rajendra Prasad
Babasaheb Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, presenting the final draft of the Indian constitution to Constituent Assembly president Rajendra Prasad on 25 November 1949

In 1928, the All Parties Conference convened a committee in Lucknow to prepare the Constitution of India, which was known as the Nehru Report.[13]

With the exception of scattered French and Portuguese exclaves, India was under the British rule from 1858 to 1947. From 1947 to 1950, the same legislation continued to be implemented as India was a dominion of United Kingdom for these three years, as most of the princely states were convinced by Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and Louis Mountbatten to sign the articles of integration with India, and the British Government continued to be responsible for the external security of the country.[14][15] Thus, the constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign, democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393, and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950 which is celebrated every year in India as Republic Day.[16]

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Previous legislation

The Indian constitution was drawn from a number of sources, mainly the Government of India Act 1935 which was significantly drafted by Samuel Hoare.[5] Mindful of India's needs and conditions, its framers borrowed features of previous legislation such as the Government of India Act 1858, the Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909, the Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935, and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The latter, which led to the creation of Pakistan, divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states.[17]

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Constituent Assembly

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Many men in a room
1950 Constituent Assembly meeting

The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies.[18] The 389-member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India) took almost three years to draft the constitution holding eleven sessions over a 165-day period.[1][17]

In the constitution assembly, a member of the drafting committee, T. T. Krishnamachari said:

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B. R. Ambedkar in his concluding speech in constituent assembly on 25 November 1949 stated that:[19]

Template:BlockquoteWhile deliberating the revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635.[17][20]

Timeline of formation of the Constitution of India

  • 6 December 1946: Formation of the Constitution Assembly (in accordance with French practice).[21]
  • 9 December 1946: The first meeting was held in the constitution hall (now the Central Hall of Parliament House).[21] The 1st person to address was J. B. Kripalani, Sachchidananda Sinha became temporary president. (Demanding a separate state, the Muslim League boycotted the meeting.)[22]
  • 11 December 1946: The Assembly appointed Rajendra Prasad as its president,[23] H. C. Mukherjee as its vice-president and, B. N. Rau as constitutional legal adviser. (There were initially 389 members in total, which declined to 299 after partition, out of the 389 members, 292 were from government provinces, four from chief commissioner provinces and 93 from princely states.)
  • 13 December 1946: An "Objective Resolution" was presented by Jawaharlal Nehru, laying down the underlying principles of the constitution. This later became the Preamble of the Constitution.
  • 22 January 1947: Objective resolution unanimously adopted.
  • 22 July 1947: National flag adopted.[24]
  • 15 August 1947: Achieved independence. India split into the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.[21]
  • 29 August 1947: Drafting Committee appointed with B. R. Ambedkar as its chairman. The other six members of committee were K.M. Munshi, Muhammed Sadulla, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, Devi Prasad Khaitan[25] and BL Mitter.[26]
  • 16 July 1948: Along with Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, V. T. Krishnamachari was also elected as second vice-president of Constituent Assembly.[27]
  • 26 November 1949: The Constitution of India was passed and adopted by the assembly.[23]
  • 24 January 1950: Last meeting of Constituent Assembly. The Constitution was signed and accepted (with 395 Articles, 8 Schedules, and 22 Parts).[28]
  • 26 January 1950: The Constitution came into force. (The process took 2 years, 11 months and 18 days[21]—at a total expenditure of ₹6.4 million to finish.)[29]

G. V. Mavlankar was the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament) after India turned into a republic.[30]

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Membership

B. R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in the assembly,[1][17] which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community,[1] and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi.[1] Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo-Indian Christians.[1] Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community.[1] Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau, K. M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of the assembly.[1] Female members included Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.[1]

The first, two-day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president.[17][18] It met for the first time on 9 December 1946.[1][18][31]

Drafting

Sir B. N. Rau, a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and was president of the United Nations Security Council, was appointed as the assembly's constitutional advisor in 1946.[32] Responsible for the constitution's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948.[32][33][34] The draft of B.N. Rau consisted of 243 articles and 13 schedules which came to 395 articles and 8 schedules after discussions, debates and amendments.[35]

At 14 August 1947 meeting of the assembly, committees were proposed.[18] Rau's draft was considered, debated and amended by the seven-member drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B. R. Ambedkar as chair.[1][31] A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947.[31]

Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days.[1][17] On 26 November 1949, it adopted the constitution,[1][17][31][34][36] which was signed by 284 members.[1][17][31][34][36] The day is celebrated as National Law Day,[1][37] or Constitution Day.[1][38] The day was chosen to spread the importance of the constitution and to spread thoughts and ideas of Ambedkar.[39]

A bespectacled Jawaharlal Nehru bending over a large book
Jawaharlal Nehru signing the constitution

The assembly's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English.[1][17][34] The original constitution is hand-written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose.[31][34] Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada.[31] The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India. Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India.[31][40] The estimated cost of the Constituent Assembly was Template:INR6.3 crore.[17] The constitution has had more than 100 amendments since it was enacted.[41]

Influence of other constitutions

Government Influence
Template:Flagicon United Kingdom[1][42]
Template:Flagicon United States[43]
Template:Flagicon Ireland
Template:Flagicon Australia
Template:Flagicon France
Template:Flagicon Canada
Template:Flagicon Soviet Union[1]
Template:Flagicon Weimar Republic[31]
Template:Flagicon South Africa
Template:Flagicon Japan

Structure

Template:Constitution of India The Indian constitution is the world's longest for a sovereign nation.[1][2][46] At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules.Template:Efn[17] At about 145,000 words, it is the second-longest active constitution—after the Constitution of Alabama—in the world.[47]

The amended constitution has a preamble and 470 articles,Template:Efn which are grouped into 25 parts.Template:Efn[31] With 12 schedulesTemplate:Efn and five appendices,[31][48] it has been amended 106 times; the latest amendment was given assent on 28 September 2023.

The constitution's articles are grouped into the following parts:

  • Preamble,[49] with the words "socialist", "secular" and 'integrity' added in 1976 by the 42nd amendment[50][51]
  • Part I[52] – The Union and its Territory – Articles 1 to 4
  • Part II – Citizenship – Articles 5 to 11
  • Part III – Fundamental Rights – Articles 12 to 35
  • Part IV – Directive Principles of State Policy – Articles 36 to 51
  • Part IVA – Fundamental Duties – Article 51A
  • Part V – The Union – Articles 52 to 151
  • Part VI – The States – Articles 152 to 237
  • Part VII – States in the B part of the first schedule (repealed) – Article 238
  • Part VIII – Union Territories – Articles 239 to 242
  • Part IX – Panchayats – Articles 243 to 243(O)
  • Part IXA – Municipalities – Articles 243(P) to 243(ZG)
  • Part IXB – Co-operative societies[53] – Articles 243(ZH) to 243(ZT)
  • Part X – Scheduled and tribal areas – Articles 244 to 244A
  • Part XI – Relations between the Union and the States – Articles 245 to 263
  • Part XII – Finance, property, contracts and suits – Articles 264 to 300A
  • Part XIII – Trade and commerce within India – Articles 301 to 307
  • Part XIV – Services under the union and states – Articles 308 to 323
  • Part XIVA – Tribunals – Articles 323A to 323B
  • Part XV – Elections – Articles 324 to 329A
  • Part XVI – Special provisions relating to certain classes – Articles 330 to 342
  • Part XVII – Languages – Articles 343 to 351
  • Part XVIII – Emergency provisions – Articles 352 to 360
  • Part XIX – Miscellaneous – Articles 361 to 367
  • Part XX – Amendment of the Constitution – Articles 368
  • Part XXI – Temporary, transitional and special provisions – Articles 369 to 392
  • Part XXII – Short title, date of commencement, authoritative text in Hindi and repeals – Articles 393 to 395

Schedules

Schedules are lists in the constitution which categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy.

Schedule Article(s) Description
First 1 and 4 Lists India's states and territories, changes in their borders and the laws used to make that change.
Second 59(3), 65(3), 75(6), 97, 125, 148(3), 158(3), 164(5), 186 and 221 Lists the salaries of public officials, judges, and the comptroller and auditor general.
Third 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2), 164(3), 188 and 219 Forms of oaths – Lists the oaths of office for elected officials and judges
Fourth 4(1) and 80(2) Details the allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (upper house of Parliament) by state or union territory.
Fifth 244(1) Provides for the administration and control of Scheduled AreasTemplate:Efn and Scheduled TribesTemplate:Efn (areas and tribes requiring special protection).
Sixth 244(2) and 275(1) Provisions made for the administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
Seventh 246 Central government, state, and concurrent lists of responsibilities
Eighth 344(1) and 351 Official languages
Ninth 31-B Validation of certain acts and regulations.Template:Efn
Tenth 102(2) and 191(2) Anti-defection provisions for members of Parliament and state legislatures.
Eleventh 243-G Panchayat Raj (rural local government)
Twelfth 243-W Municipalities (urban local government)

Appendices

  • Appendix ITemplate:SndThe Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954
  • Appendix IITemplate:SndRe-statement, referring to the constitution's present text, of exceptions and modifications applicable to the state of Jammu and Kashmir
  • Appendix IIITemplate:SndExtracts from the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978
  • Appendix IVTemplate:SndThe Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002
  • Appendix VTemplate:SndThe Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2003

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Governmental sources of power

The executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government receive their power from the constitution and are bound by it.[54] With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature though the two partially overlap each other.

  • Under Articles 52 and 53: the president of India is head of the executive branch
  • Under Article 60: the duty of preserving, protecting, and defending the constitution and the law.
  • Under Article 74: the prime minister is the head of the Council of Ministers, which aids and advises the president in the performance of their constitutional duties.
  • Under Article 75(3): the Council of Ministers is answerable to the lower house.

The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation, including a codified, supreme constitution; a three-tier governmental structure (central, state and local); division of powers between Centre and states;[55] bicameralism; and an independent judiciary. It also possesses unitary features such as a single constitution, single citizenship, an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government, appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS, IFS and IPS), and emergency provisions. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.[56]

Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has a governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister. Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government cannot be conducted in accordance with constitution. This power, known as president's rule, was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. After S. R. Bommai v. Union of India,[57][58] such a course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review.[59]

The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas.[31] Article 370 gave special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

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The legislature and amendments

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Article 368 dictates the procedure for constitutional amendments. Amendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of the constitution by Parliament.[60] An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a two-thirds majority of its total membership when at least two-thirds are present and vote. Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures.

Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills), there is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. During a parliamentary recess, the president cannot promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III.

Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world's most frequently-amended national governing document.[61] The constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies.

In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The commission submitted its report on 31 March 2002. However, the recommendations of this report have not been accepted by the consecutive governments.

The government of India establishes term-based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating the rule of law.

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Limitations

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In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment cannot destroy what it seeks to modify; it cannot tinker with the constitution's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of the constitution. According to the doctrine, the constitution's basic features (when "read as a whole") cannot be abridged or abolished. These "basic features" have not been fully defined,[54] and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a "basic feature" is decided by the courts.[62]

The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution's basic structure:[63]

  1. Supremacy of the constitution
  2. Republican, democratic form of government
  3. Its secular nature
  4. Separation of powersTemplate:Citation needed
  5. Its federal character[63]

This implies that Parliament can only amend the constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review. This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power.

In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine.[64] The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights.[65] The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.[65]

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The judiciary

The judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution.[66] Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds.[67] The judiciary protects the fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states).

The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution,[68][69] which cannot be changed by the legislature or the executive.[70] Article 50 of the Constitution provides that the state must take measures to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services.

Judicial review

Template:Main Judicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States.[71] In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13. The constitution is the supreme power of the nation, and governs all laws. According to Article 13:

  1. All pre-constitutional laws, if they conflict wholly or in part with the constitution, shall have all conflicting provisions deemed ineffective until an amendment to the constitution ends the conflict; the law will again come into force if it is compatible with the constitution as amended (the Doctrine of Eclipse).[72]
  2. Laws made after the adoption of the constitution must be compatible with it, or they will be deemed void ab initio.
  3. In such situations, the Supreme Court (or a high court) determines if a law is in conformity with the constitution. If such an interpretation is not possible because of inconsistency (and where separation is possible), the provision which is inconsistent with the constitution is considered void. In addition to Article 13, Articles 32, 226 and 227 provide the constitutional basis for judicial review.[73]

Due to the adoption of the Thirty-eighth Amendment, the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies).[74] The Forty-second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368(4) and 368(5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review is a basic characteristic of the constitution, overturning Articles 368(4), 368(5) and 31C.[75]

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The executive

Template:Main Chapter 1 of the Constitution of India creates a parliamentary system, with a prime minister who, in practice, exercises most executive power. The prime minister must have the support of a majority of the members of the Lok Sabha, or lower House of Parliament. If the prime minister does not have the support of a majority, the Lok Sabha can pass a motion of no confidence, removing the prime minister from office. Thus the prime minister is the member of parliament who leads the majority party or a coalition comprising a majority.[76] The prime minister governs with the aid of a Council of Ministers, which the prime minister appoints and whose members head ministries. Importantly, Article 75 establishes that "the Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the House of the People" or Lok Sabha.[77] The Lok Sabha interprets this article to mean that the entire Council of Ministers can be subjected to a no confidence motion.[78] If a no confidence motion succeeds, the entire Council of Ministers must resign.

Despite the prime minister exercising executive power in practice, the constitution bestows all the national government's executive power in the office of the president.[79] This de jure power is not exercised in reality, however. Article 74 requires the president follow the "aid and advice" of the council, headed by the prime minister.[80] In practice, this means that president's role is mostly ceremonial, with the prime minister exercising executive power because the president is obligated to act on the prime minister's wishes.[81] The president does retain the power to ask the council to reconsider its advice, however, an action the president may take publicly. The council is not required to make any changes before resubmitting the advice to the president, in which case the president is constitutionally required to adhere to it, overriding the president's discretion.[80] Previous presidents have used this occasion to make public statements about their reasoning for sending a decision back to the council, in an attempt to sway public opinion.[81] This system, with an executive who only possesses nominal power and an official "advisor" who possess actual power, is based on the British system and is a result of colonial influences on India before and during the writing of its constitution.[82][83]

The president is chosen by an electoral college composed of the members of both the national and state legislatures. Article 55 outlines the specifics of the electoral college. Half of the votes in the electoral college are assigned to state representatives in proportion to the population of each state and the other half are assigned to the national representatives. The voting is conducted using a secret, single transferable vote.[84]

While the Constitution gives the legislative powers to the two Houses of Parliament, Article 111 requires the president's signature for a bill to become law. Just as with the advice of the council, the president can refuse to sign and send it back to the Parliament, but the Parliament can in turn send it back to the president who must then sign it.[85]

Dismissal of the prime minister

Despite the president's mandate to obey the advice of the prime minister and the council, Article 75 declares that both "shall hold office during the pleasure of the president."[77] This means the president has the constitutional power to dismiss the prime minister or Council at anytime. If the prime minister still retained a majority vote in the Lok Sabha, however, this could trigger a constitutional crisis because the same article of the Constitution states that the Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha and must command a majority in it. In practice the issue has never arisen, though President Zail Singh threatened to remove Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi from office in 1987.[86]

Presidential power to legislate

When either or both Houses of Parliament are not in session, the prime minister, acting via the president, can unilaterally exercise the legislative power, creating ordinances that have the force of law. These ordinances expire six weeks after Parliament reconvenes or sooner if both Houses disapprove.[87] The Constitution declares that ordinances should only be issued when circumstances arise that require "immediate action." Because this term is not defined, governments have begun abusing the ordinance system to enact laws that could not pass both Houses of Parliament, according to some commentators.[88] This appears to be more common with divided government; when the prime minister's party controls the lower house but not the upper house, ordinances can be used to avoid needing the approval of the opposition in the upper house. In recent years, around ten ordinances have been passed annually, though at the peak of their use, over 30 were passed in a single year.[89] Ordinances can vary widely on their topic; recent examples of ordinances include items as varied as modifications to land owner rights, emergency responses to the COVID-19 pandemic, and changes to banking regulations.[89][90]

Federalism

Template:Main The first article of the Constitution declares that India is a "Union of States".[91] Under the Constitution, the states retain key powers for themselves and have a strong influence over the national government via the Rajya Sabha. However, the Constitution does provide key limits on their powers and gives final say in many cases to the national government.

State powers in the Constitution

Rajya Sabha

Template:Main At the Union level, the states are represented in the Rajya Sabha or Council of States. The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution lays out the number of seats that each state controls in the Council of States, and they are based roughly on each state's population.[92] The members of each state legislature elect and appoint these representatives in the Council of States.[93] On most topics the Rajya Sabha is coequal with the lower house or Lok Sabha, and its consent is required for a bill to become a law.[94] Additionally, as one of the Houses of Parliament, any amendment to the Constitution requires a two-thirds majority in the Rajya Sabha to go into effect.[95] These provisions allow the states significant impact on national politics through their representation in the "federal chamber".[92]

State List

The Constitution provides the states with a long list of powers exclusive to their jurisdiction.[92] Generally only state legislatures are capable of passing laws implementing these powers; the Union government is prohibited from doing so. These powers are contained in the second list of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, known as the State List. The areas on the State List are wide-ranging and include topics like public health and order and a variety of taxes. The State List grants the states control over the police, healthcare, agriculture, elections, and more.[96]

Powers can only be permanently removed from the State List via a constitutional amendment approved by a majority of the states. The Rajya Sabha, as the representative of the states, can temporarily remove an item from the State List so the Union parliament can legislate on it. This requires a two-thirds vote and lasts for a renewable one-year period.[92]

Amendments

In addition to exerting influence over the amendment process via the Rajya Sabha, the states are sometimes involved in the amendment process. This special, entrenched process is triggered when an amendment to the Constitution specifically concerns the states by modifying the legislature or the powers reserved to the states in the Seventh Schedule. When this occurs, an amendment must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures for the amendment to go into effect.[95]

Limitations on state powers

Union and Concurrent Lists

While the State List mentioned above provides powers for the states, there are two other lists in the Seventh Schedule that generally weaken them. These are the Union and Concurrent lists. The Union List is the counterpart to the State List, containing the areas of exclusive jurisdiction of the Union government, where the states are prohibited from legislating.[97] Items on the Union List include the national defense, international relations, immigration, banking, and interstate commerce.[96]

The final list is the Concurrent List which contains the topics on which both the Union and state-level governments may legislate on. These topics include courts and criminal law, unions, social security, and education.[96] In general, when the Union and state laws on a Concurrent List item conflict, the Union-level laws prevail. The only way for the state-level law to override the national one is with the consent of the president, acting on the advice of the prime minister.[98]

Additionally, any powers not on any of the three lists are reserved for the Union government and not for the states.[99]

Appointment of governors

The governor of each state is given the executive power of the respective state by the Constitution.[100] These governors are appointed directly by the president of the central government. Because the prime minister acts via the president, the prime minister is the one who chooses the governors in practice.[101] Once appointed, a governor serves for a five-year term or can be replaced by the president at any time, if asked to do so by the prime minister.[102] Because the Union government can remove a governor at any time, it is possible that governors may act in a way the Union Government wants, to the detriment of their state, so that they can maintain their office. This has become a larger issue as the state legislatures are often controlled by different parties than that of the Union prime minister, unlike the early years of the constitution.[103] For example, governors have used stalling tactics to delay giving their assent to legislation that the Union Government disapproves of.[104]

In general the influence of the Union on state politics via the governor is limited, however, by the fact that the governor must listen to the advice of the chief minister of the state who needs to command a majority in the state legislature.[105] There are key areas where the governor does not need to heed the advice of the chief minister. For example, the governor can send a bill to president for consideration instead of signing it into law.[106]

Creation of states

Template:Main Perhaps the most direct power over the states is the Union's ability to unilaterally create new states out of territories or existing states and to modify and diminish the boundaries of existing states.[107] To do so, Parliament must pass a simple law with no supermajority requirements. The states involved do not have a say on the outcome but the state legislature must be asked to comment.[108] The most recent state to be created was Telangana in 2014.[109] More recently, Ladakh was created as a new Union Territory after being split off from Jammu and Kashmir in 2019, and Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli were combined into a single Union Territory in 2020.[110][111]

Federalism and the courts

Template:Main While the states have separate legislative and executive branches, they share the judiciary with the Union government. This is different from other federal court systems, such as the United States, where state courts mainly apply state law and federal courts mainly apply federal law.[112] Under the Indian constitution, the High Courts of the States are directly constituted by the national constitution. The constitution also allows states to set up lower courts under and controlled by the state's High Court.[113][114] Cases heard at or appealed to the High Courts can be furter appealed to the Supreme Court of India in some cases.[115] All cases, whether dealing with federal or state laws, move up the same judicial hierarchy, creating a system sometimes termed integrated federalism.[112]

International law

The Constitution includes treaty making as part of the executive power given to the president.[116] Because the president must act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers, the prime minister is the chief party responsible for making international treaties in the Constitution. Because the legislative power rests with Parliament, the president's signature on an international agreement does not bring it into effect domestically or enable courts to enforce its provisions. Article 253 of the Constitution bestows this power on Parliament, enabling it to make laws necessary for implementing international agreements and treaties.[117] These provisions indicate that the Constitution of India is dualist, that is, treaty law only takes effect when a domestic law passed using the normal processes incorporates it into domestic law.[118]

Recent Supreme Court decisions have begun to change this convention, incorporating aspects of international law without enabling legislation from parliament.[119] For example, in Gramophone Company of India Ltd. v Birendra Bahadur Pandey, the Court held that "the rules of international law are incorporated into national law and considered to be part of the national law, unless they are in conflict with an Act of Parliament."[120] In essence, this implies that international law applies domestically unless parliament says it does not.[118] This decision moves the Indian Constitution to a more hybrid regime, but not to a fully monist one.

File:Indian constitution in Rashtrapati Bhavan Museum.jpg
The Constitution on display in Rashtrapati Bhavan Museum

Flexibility

According to American historian Granville Austin, "The Indian constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people."Template:Efn[121] The constitution has deliberately been worded in generalities (not in vague terms) to ensure its flexibility.[122] John Marshall, the fourth chief justice of the United States, said that a constitution's "great outlines should be marked, its important objects designated, and the minor ingredients which compose those objects be deduced from the nature of the objects themselves."[123] A document "intended to endure for ages to come",[124] it must be interpreted not only based on the intention and understanding of its framers, but in the existing social and political context.

The "right to life" guaranteed under Article 21Template:Efn has been expanded to include a number of human rights, including:[1]

At the conclusion of his book, Making of India's Constitution, retired Supreme Court Justice Hans Raj Khanna wrote:

Template:BlockquoteWhereas scholars such as Arghya Sengupta have written about the colonial legacy and transformative potential of the Indian Constitution, most recently in his book The Colonial Constitution (Juggernaut, 2023).[128][129][130][131]

Translations into Indian languages Template:Anchor

The Constitution of India is translated into only a few of the 22 scheduled languages of the Indian Republic.

Hindi translation Template:Anchor

The Hindi translation of the Indian Constitution is notably the first translation among Indian languages. This task was undertaken by Raghu Vira, a distinguished linguist, scholar, politician, and member of the Constituent Assembly.

In 1948, nearly two years after the formation of the Constituent Assembly, Rajendra Prasad entrusted Raghu Vira and his team to translate the English text of the Constitution into Hindi.[132] Raghu Vira, using Sanskrit as a common base akin to the role of Latin in European languages, applied the rules of sandhi (joining), samasa (compounding), upasarga (prefix), and pratyaya (suffix) to develop several new terms for scientific and parliamentary use. The terminology was subsequently approved by an All India Committee of Linguistic Experts, representing thirteen languages: Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Odia (then spelled as Oriya), Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Marathi, Punjabi, Kashmiri, and Urdu. The vocabulary developed for Hindi later served as a base for translating the constitution into several other Indic languages.[133]

Bengali translation Template:Anchor

The Constitution of India was first translated from English into Bengali language and published in 1983, as Template:Script (romanised: "Bharoter Songbidhan") in Kolkata, through the collective efforts of the Government of West Bengal and the Union Government of India. Its second edition was published in 1987, and third in 2022. It contains up to the One hundred and fifth Amendment of the Constitution.[134]

Meitei translation Template:Anchor

Template:Distinguish The Constitution of India was first translated from English into Meitei language (officially known as Manipuri language) and published on 3 January 2019, as Template:Lang, in Imphal, through the collective efforts of the Government of Manipur and the Union Government of India. It was written in Bengali script. It contains up to the Ninety-fifth Amendment of the Constitution.[135] The translation project was started in 2016 by the Directorate of Printing & Stationery of the Government of Manipur.[136]

On 19 November 2023, Nongthombam Biren Singh, the then chief minister of Manipur declared that it will be transliterated into Template:Langnf in digital edition.[137]

On 26 November 2023, Nongthombam Biren Singh, the then chief minister of the Government of Manipur, officially released the diglot edition of the Constitution of India, in the Template:Langnf in Manipuri language and English,[138][139][140] at the Cabinet hall of the CM Secretariat in Imphal,[141] as part of the Constitution Day celebrations (National Law Day) of the Republic of India,[142] containing up to the 105th Amendment of the Constitution,[143][138] for the first time in its history.[143] It was made to be available in all educational institutions, government offices, and public libraries across the Manipur state.[142]

Odia translation Template:Anchor

The Constitution of India was first translated from English into Odia language and published on 1 April 1981, as Template:Script (romanised: "Bharatara Sambidhana") in Bhubaneswar, through the collective efforts of the Government of Odisha and the Union Government of India.[144]

Sanskrit translation Template:Anchor

The Constitution of India was first translated from English into Sanskrit language and published on 1 April 1985, as Template:Script (romanised: "Bhartasya Samvidhanam") in New Delhi.[145]

Tamil translation Template:Anchor

The 4th edition of Constitution of India in Tamil language was published in 2021, as Template:Script (romanised: "Intiya araciyalamaippu") in Chennai, through the collective efforts of the Government of Tamil Nadu and the Union Government of India. It contains up to the One hundred and fifth Amendment of the Constitution.[146]

Maithili translation Template:Anchor

In the year 2010, Maithili Sahitya Sansthan secretary Bhairava Lal Das published a Maithili version of the Indian Constitution by his own self.[147] Similarly on 26 November 2024 during the occasion of the Constitution Day, the president of India officially launched the Maithili version of the Indian Constitution.[148]


Kashmiri translation Template:Anchor

In November 2025, the Constitution of India was translated into the Kashmiri language. The official translation was prepared by a team from the University of Kashmir under the Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India, and carried out through the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore.[149] The project began in September 2023 and was completed in March 2025. It was coordinated by Professor Aejaz Mohammad Sheikh, who served as the lead translator and linguist. The Kashmiri translation was formally released on Constitution Day (27 November 2025) by Droupadi Murmu in New Delhi, along with translations in other Indian languages, including Malayalam, Marathi, Nepali, Punjabi, Bodo, Telugu and Assamese.[150] According to official sources, the Kashmiri version aims to improve access to constitutional texts for Kashmiri-speaking citizens and is available through the Legislative Department of the Government of India.[151][152]

See also

References

Explanatory notes

Template:Notelist

Citations

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 Celebrate the supreme law. The Hindu(21 January 2016). Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 India's Constitution{{#if:Pylee|, Pylee}. R. Chand & Company(1994). ISBN 978-8121904032
  3. ↑ Original edition with original artwork - The Constitution of India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Government of India(26 November 1949)
  4. ↑ Preface, The constitution of India. Government of India. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Template:Cite magazine
  6. ↑ Introduction to Constitution of India. Ministry of Law and Justice of India(29 July 2008). Retrieved 14 October 2008.
  7. ↑ India's benign constitutional revolution(26 January 2013). Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  8. ↑ Political System of India{{#if:Das|, Das}. Anmol Publications(2002). ISBN 978-8174884961
  9. ↑ Aruna Roy & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors.. Supreme Court of India(12 September 2002). Retrieved 11 November 2015.
  10. ↑ Preamble of the Constitution of India. Ministry of Law & Justice. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
  11. ↑ The Constitution of India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Photolithographed at the Survey of India Offices(1950)
  12. ↑ Constitution of India (Interesting Facts). Press Information Bureau(25 November 2021).
  13. ↑ Constituent Assemblies{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(2018). ISBN 978-1-108-42752-4
  14. ↑ Law and Society: Strategy for Public Choice, 2001{{#if:Sanajaoba|, Sanajaoba}. Mittal Publications(1991). ISBN 978-81-7099-271-4
  15. ↑ The story of the integration of the India states{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Longman Greens and Co(15 September 1955)
  16. ↑ Commencement. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 Making of Indian Constitution, Yellosa, Jetling. The Hans India(26 November 2015). Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 The Constituent Assembly Debates (Proceedings) (9 December 1946 to 24 January 1950). The Parliament of India Archive. Retrieved 22 February 2008.
  19. ↑ Dr B.R. Ambedkar concluding speech in constituent assembly on November 25, 1949. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
  20. ↑ First Day in the Constituent Assembly. Parliament of India. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Evolution of the Indian Constitution. Surendranath Evening College. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  22. ↑ Civics and Polity: The Making of Indian Constitution. Leverage Edu(10 April 2024). Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Making of the Indian Constitution. Employment News(25 January 2020). Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  24. ↑ History Of Indian Tricolor. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
  25. ↑ On Republic Day, Gautam Khaitan remembers great-grandfather, an architect of Indian Constitution. ANI News. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  26. ↑ Republic Day: The Lawyers who helped draft the Constitution of India, AK, Aditya. Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news(26 January 2018). Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  27. ↑ The Making and Evolution of Indian Constitution. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
  28. ↑ CONSTITUTION OF INDIA. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
  29. ↑ Interesting Facts About the Indian Constitution. BPAC. Bangalore Political Action Committee(25 November 2022). Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  30. ↑ G. V. Mavalankar. Constitution of India. Constitution of India Website. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
  31. ↑ 31.00 31.01 31.02 31.03 31.04 31.05 31.06 31.07 31.08 31.09 31.10 31.11 31.12 31.13 31.14 Document for all ages: Why Constitution is our greatest achievement. Hindustan Times(26 November 2015). Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 BN Rau: The Forgotten Architect of Indian Constitution. The Pioneer(26 January 2017). Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  33. ↑ The Manu of Our Times?, Shourie, Arun. Retrieved 2013-06-13.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Celebrating Constitution Day. The Hindu(26 November 2015). Retrieved 26 July 2018.
  35. ↑ Constituent Assembly of India Debates. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Some Facts of Constituent Assembly. National Informatics Centre. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  37. ↑ On National Law Day, saluting two remarkable judges. First Post(26 November 2011).
  38. ↑ PM Modi greets people on Constitution Day. DNA India(26 November 2015).
  39. ↑ November 26 to be observed as Constitution Day: Facts on the Constitution of India. India Today(12 October 2015). Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  40. ↑ Original unamended constitution of India, January, 1950. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
  41. ↑ The Constitution (Amendment) Acts. Ministry of Law, Government of India. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  42. ↑ 42.00 42.01 42.02 42.03 42.04 42.05 42.06 42.07 42.08 42.09 42.10 42.11 42.12 42.13 42.14 42.15 42.16 42.17 42.18 42.19 42.20 42.21 42.22 42.23 Constitution Day: Borrowed features in the Indian Constitution from other countries. India Today. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
  43. ↑ How India Borrowed From the US Constitution to Draft its Own. The Quint(27 November 2015). Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  44. ↑ Evolution and Philosophy behind the Indian Constitution (page 22). Dr.Marri Channa Reddy Human Resource Development Institute (Institute of Administration), Hyderabad.. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  45. ↑ Quebec History, Bélanger, Claude. faculty.marianopolis.edu. Retrieved 2020-06-27.
  46. ↑ Which country has the world's shortest written constitution?. History(9 August 2016). Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  47. ↑ Is the Alabama Constitution the longest constitution in the world?Truth Rating: 4 out of 5. The Anniston Star(18 November 2012). Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  48. ↑ Constitution of india. Ministry of Law and Justice, Govt. of India. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
  49. ↑ Preamble of the Constitution of India: An Insight and Comparison with Other Constitutions{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Deep & Deep(2007). ISBN 978-81-7629-996-1
  50. ↑ Legal experts say debating Preamble of Constitution pointless, needless. The Indian Express(30 January 2015). Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  51. ↑ Forty-Second Amendment to the Constitution. Ministry of Law and Justice of India(28 August 1976). Retrieved 14 October 2008.
  52. ↑ Part I
  53. ↑ The Constitution (Ninety Seventh Amendment). Retrieved 17 November 2013.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Parliament and the Judiciary. The Hindu(26 September 2004). Retrieved 21 November 2015.
  55. ↑ Constitution of India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}
  56. ↑ Indian Polity{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. McGraw Hill Education(2013). ISBN 978-1-25-906412-8
  57. ↑ Article 356 should be abolished. Frontline. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  58. ↑ Bommai verdict has checked misuse of Article 356. Frontline. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  59. ↑ Protecting secularism and federal fair play. Frontline. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  60. ↑ Pages 311 & 312 of original judgement: A. K. Roy, Etc vs Union Of India And Anr on 28 December, 1981. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
  61. ↑ Colonial Cousins: Explaining India and Canada's Unwritten Constitutional Principles. Yale Journal of International Law({Template:Date).
  62. ↑ Need to Amend a Constitution and Doctrine of Basic Features{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Wadhwa and Company(2007). ISBN 9788180382536
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Doctrine of Basic StructureTemplate:SndConstitutional Law. www.legalserviceindia.com. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
  64. ↑ Constitutional Identity{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Harvard University Press(2010). ISBN 9780674047662
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 India's New Constitutionalism: Two Cases That Have Reshaped Indian Law. Boston College International Comparative Law Review({Template:Date).
  66. ↑ Article – The Inner Conflict of Constitutionalism: Judicial Review and the 'Basic Structure' (BookTemplate:SndIndia's Kiving Constitution: Ideas, Practices, Controversies){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Permanent Black(2002). ISBN 81-7824-087-4
  67. ↑ Supreme Court Shows Govt Its LoC. the day after. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
  68. ↑ A Consultation Paper on the Financial Autonomy of the Indian Judiciary. National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution(26 September 2001). Retrieved 5 November 2015.
  69. ↑ Indian Politics and Society Since Independence: Events, Processes and Ideology{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2008). ISBN 978-0-415-40867-7
  70. ↑ A step in the Wrong Direction. The Week(1 November 2015). Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  71. ↑ Template:Cite magazine
  72. ↑ Indian Constitutional Law{{#if:Jain|, Jain}. LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa Nagpur(2010). ISBN 978-81-8038-621-3
  73. ↑ Lectures By Professor Parmanad Singh, Jindal Global Law School.
  74. ↑ Constitutional Identity{{#if:Jacobsohn|, Jacobsohn}. Harvard University Press(2010). ISBN 978-0674047662
  75. ↑ India's deceptive Constitution. The Hindu(6 June 2015). Retrieved 26 July 2018.
  76. ↑ The Hindu : Front Page : President appoints Manmohan Prime Minister(2012-06-03). Retrieved 2021-10-17.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Part V, Article 75.
  78. ↑ Parliament of India, Lok Sabha. 164.100.47.194. Retrieved 2021-10-17.
  79. ↑ Part V, Article 53.
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 Part V, Article 74.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 What is India's president actually for?. BBC News(2017-08-02). Retrieved 2021-10-17.
  82. ↑ Parts of the Indian Constitution that were 'inspired by' others. Deccan Herald(2021-01-25). Retrieved 2022-01-11.
  83. ↑ Modeling the State. Southeast Asian Studies({Template:Date).
  84. ↑ Part V, Article 55.
  85. ↑ Part V, Article 111.
  86. ↑ Under the Constitution, does the President have the right to remove the Prime Minister?. India Today(May 15, 1987). Retrieved 2021-10-18.
  87. ↑ Part V, Article 123.
  88. ↑ Repeated promulgation of ordinances because a bill is held up in the Rajya Sabha is a violation of constitutional principles. Times of India Blog(2016-09-27). Retrieved 2021-10-18.
  89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 Decree Power in Parliamentary Systems: Theory and Evidence from India. The Journal of Politics({Template:Date).
  90. ↑ The ordinance raj of the Bharatiya Janata Party. Hindustan Times(2020-09-11). Retrieved 2022-01-11.
  91. ↑ Part I, Article 1.
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 92.3 Rajya Sabha. rajyasabha.nic.in. Retrieved 2021-10-19.
  93. ↑ Part V, Article 80.
  94. ↑ Part V, Article 107.
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 Part XX, Article 368.
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 96.2 Constitution of India.
  97. ↑ Part XI, Article 246.
  98. ↑ Congress mulls using Article 254(2) to bypass farm laws: All you need to know about the rarely-used provision. Firstpost(2020-09-29). Retrieved 2021-10-19.
  99. ↑ Part XI, Article 248.
  100. ↑ Part VI, Article 154.
  101. ↑ Part VI, Article 155.
  102. ↑ Part VI, Article 156.
  103. ↑ The Institution of Governor Under the Constitution, Reddy, Jeevan(May 11, 2001).
  104. ↑ Recurring Controversy About Governor's Role in State Politics, Chatterji, Rakhahari(6 June 2020).
  105. ↑ Part VI, Article 163.
  106. ↑ Part VI.
  107. ↑ Part I, Article 2.
  108. ↑ Part I, Article 3.
  109. ↑ New State Formation. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
  110. ↑ Introduction | The Administration of Union Territory of Ladakh | India. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
  111. ↑ About UT Administration | UT of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu | India. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
  112. ↑ 112.0 112.1 Judiciary in India. The Indian Journal of Political Science({Template:Date).
  113. ↑ Part VI, Article 214.
  114. ↑ Part VI, Article 235.
  115. ↑ Part V, Article 133-134.
  116. ↑ Part V, Article 73.
  117. ↑ Part XI, Article 253.
  118. ↑ 118.0 118.1 India and international law: formal dualism, functional monism. Indian Journal of International Law({Template:Date).
  119. ↑ Are the Indian Courts Still Following the Constitutional Principle of Dualism? Not Quite So. The RMLNLU Law Review Blog(2020-03-31). Retrieved 2021-10-18.
  120. ↑ Gramophone Company of India Ltd. v Birendra Bahadur Pandey.
  121. ↑ The biographer of the Indian constitution. Seminar. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
  122. ↑ Principle of Constitutional Interpretation: Some Reflections. (2004) 4 SCC (Jour) 1.
  123. ↑ Template:Cite court
  124. ↑ Template:Cite court
  125. ↑ Article – Law and the Poor: Some Recent Developments in India (BookTemplate:SndCriminal Law and Criminology){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Deep & Deep(2002). ISBN 81-7629-410-1
  126. ↑ Water as a Fundamental Right: A Perspective from India. Vermont Law Review.
  127. ↑ Making social rights conditional: Lessons from India. International Journal of Constitutional Law({Template:Year).
  128. ↑ The Colonial Constitution By Arghya Sengupta, Juggernaut, 2023. 296 pp. ISBN 978-9353451929 £10.64, (paperback). International Journal of Law in Context({Template:Date).
  129. ↑ Book Review | Why Not to Call the Constitution Colonial. National Law School of India University. Retrieved 2025-09-06.
  130. ↑ Incomplete History and the Triggering Title | Economic and Political Weekly. www.epw.in(2024-04-27). Retrieved 2025-09-06.
  131. ↑ Template:Cite AV media
  132. ↑ Constituent Assembly Discussions on July 30, 1949. indiankanoon.org.
  133. ↑ A Tragedy That Struck Sanskrit, Hindi, Hinduism, And Cultural Legacy of India. swargvibha.freevar.com.
  134. ↑ Constitution of India in Bengali version. legislative.gov.in. Government of India.
  135. ↑ The Constitution of India in Manipuri. legislative.gov.in. Government of India.
  136. ↑ Manipur Govt to Publish Indian Constitution in Manipuri(2016-07-20). Retrieved 2023-11-19.
  137. ↑ —'Indian Constitution in Meetei Mayek'. Imphal Free Press. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
    —Constitution to be published in Meetei Mayek script: Manipur CM Biren Singh. The Times of India(2023-11-18). Retrieved 2023-11-19.
    —Digital Edition Of Constitution In Meetei Mayek Script Soon: Manipur Chief Minister. NDTV.com. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
    —Manipur: Constitution of India will be published in Meetei Mayek script, announces CM N Biren Singh. India Today NE(2023-11-18). Retrieved 2023-11-19.
    —Constitution Will Be Published In Meetei Mayek Script, Announces Manipur CM Biren Singh. TimesNow(2023-11-18). Retrieved 2023-11-19.
    —Manipur: Constitution to be soon published in Meetei-Mayek script. Northeast Live(2023-11-19). Retrieved 2023-11-19.
  138. ↑ 138.0 138.1 Manipur Chief Minister releases diglot edition of Constitution in Meetei Mayek. India Today(26 November 2023). Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  139. ↑ Biren Singh Launches Digital Edition Of Constitution In Manipuri Language.
  140. ↑ Manipur CM N Biren Singh Launches Diglot Edition of Constitution in Meitei Mayek Script(2023-11-26). Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  141. ↑ Manipur: Indian Constitution published in Meetei-Mayek script, CM N Biren Singh releases Diglot edition. India Today NE(2023-11-26). Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  142. ↑ 142.0 142.1 Constitution Day 2023: Manipur CM Biren Singh Launches Diglot Edition of Indian Constitution In Regional Language. www.india.com. Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  143. ↑ 143.0 143.1 Manipur CM Biren Releases Indian Constitution In Manipuri Language In Imphal(2023-11-26). Retrieved 2023-11-26.
  144. ↑ The Constitution of India in Oriya version. legislative.gov.in. Government of India.
  145. ↑ The Constitution of India in Sanskrit. legislative.gov.in. Government of India.
  146. ↑ Constitution of India in Tamil | Legislative Department | India. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
  147. ↑ Time to sustain Maithili's growth. The Times of India(2023-12-10). Retrieved 2024-11-27.
  148. ↑ Indian Constitution live, progressive document: Prez Murmu addresses Parliament on Samvidhan Divas, PTI. The New Indian Express(2024-11-26). Retrieved 2024-11-27.
  149. ↑ Constitution of India translated into Kashmiri for first time. The Week(27 November 2025). Retrieved 10 January 2026.
  150. ↑ Constitution of India translated into Kashmiri for first time. The Week(27 November 2025). Retrieved 10 January 2026.
  151. ↑ In a historic first, Constitution of India translated into Kashmiri. The Times of India(27 November 2025). Retrieved 10 January 2026.
  152. ↑ Constitution of India – Authoritative Texts in Indian Languages. Legislative Department, Government of India. Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved 10 January 2026.

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