Template:Infobox language Kashmiri (Template:IPAc-en)[1] or Koshur (Template:Lang, /kəːʃur/)[2] is a language from the Dardic subgroup of Indo-Aryan languages, spoken by around 7 million Kashmiris, primarily in the Indian administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
In 2020 the Parliament of India passed a bill to make Kashmiri an official language of Jammu and Kashmir along with Dogri, Hindi, English and Urdu. Kashmiri is also among the 22 scheduled languages of India.
Kashmiri has split ergativity and the unusual verb-second word order.
Geographic distribution and status
There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India.[3] Most Kashmiri speakers are located in the Kashmir Valley and Chenab Valley of Jammu and Kashmir.[4]
Kashmiri is also spoken in Pakistan, primarily in the territory of Azad Kashmir, where the speakers are mostly concentrated in the Neelam and Leepa valleys and in the district of Haveli.[5]Template:Better source needed Their numbers are not known exactly, but in 2012 they were estimated at around 130,000.[6] At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.[7]
The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.[8] It was a part of the eighth Schedule in the former constitution of the Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state.[9]
In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time.[10][11][12] Before that Urdu was sole official language of Jammu and Kashmir since 1889.
Most Kashmiri speakers use Urdu or English as a second language.[13] Since November 2008, the Kashmiri language has been made a compulsory subject in all government schools in the Valley up to secondary level.[14][15]
Kashmiri is closely related to Poguli and Kishtwari, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.
Phonology
Kashmiri has the following vowel phonemes:[16]Template:Sfn
Vowels
Consonants
Archaisms
Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from the Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the three sibilant consonants s ṣ ś of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit as dvi-, has developed into ba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, but du- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stop d). Seventy-two is dusatath in Kashmiri, bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, and dvisaptati in Sanskrit.[17]
Certain features in Kashmiri even appear to stem from Indo-Aryan even predating the Vedic period. For instance, there was an /s/ > /h/ consonant shift in some words that had already occurred with Vedic Sanskrit (This tendency was complete Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian), yet is lacking in Kashmiri equivalents. The word rahit in Vedic Sanskrit and modern Hindi-Urdu (meaning 'excluding' or 'without') corresponds to rost in Kashmiri. Similarly, sahit (meaning 'including' or 'with') corresponds to sost in Kashmiri.[17]
Writing system
Template:Arabic-script sidebar
There are three orthographical systems used to write the Kashmiri language: the Perso-Arabic script, the Devanagari script and the Sharada script. The Roman script is also sometimes informally used to write Kashmiri, especially online.[18]
The Kashmiri language is traditionally written in the Sharada script after the 8th Century A.D.[19] This script however, is not in common use today, except for religious ceremonies of the Kashmiri Pandits.[20]
Today it is written in Perso-Arabic and Devanagari scripts (with some modifications).[21] Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the scripts that regularly indicates all vowel sounds.[22]
The Perso-Arabic script is recognised as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.[23][24][25][26]
Nowadays, Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has come to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims, while the Kashmiri Devanagari script has come to be associated with the Kashmiri Hindu community.[27][28]
Perso-Arabic script
Consonants
Vowels
Devanagari
Consonants
| Letter | क | ख | ग | च | छ | ज | च़ | छ़ | ज़ | ट | ठ | ड | त | थ | द | न | प | फ | ब | म | य | र | ल | व | श | स | ह |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Transliteration | k | kh | g | č | čh | j | c | ch | z | ṭ | ṭh | ḍ | t | th | d | n | p | ph | b | m | y | r | l | w | š | s | h |
Vowels
There have been a few versions of the devanagari script for Kashmiri.[29] The 2002 version of the proposal is shown below.[30] This version has readers and more content available on the Internet, even though this is an older proposal.[31][32] This version makes use of the vowels ॲ/ऑ and vowel signs कॅ/कॉ for the schwa-like vowel Template:IPA and elongated schwa-like vowel Template:IPA that also exist in other Devanagari-based scripts such as Marathi and Hindi but are used for the sound of other vowels.
Tabulated below is the latest (2009) version of the proposal to spell the Kashmiri vowels with Devanagari.[33][34] The primary change in this version is the changed stand alone characters ॳ / ॴ and vowel signs Template:Lang / Template:Lang for the schwa-like vowel Template:IPA & elongated schwa-like vowel Template:IPA and a new stand alone vowel Template:Lang and vowel sign Template:Lang for the open-mid back rounded vowel Template:IPA which can be used instead of the consonant व standing-in for this vowel.
Sharada script
Consonants
Vowels
Vowel mark
Grammar
Kashmiri is a fusional languageTemplate:Sfn with verb-second (V2) word order.[38] Several of Kashmiri's grammatical features distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages.Template:Sfn
Nouns
Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are no articles, nor is there any grammatical distinction for definiteness, although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or "generic" noun qualities.Template:Sfn
Gender
The Kashmiri gender system is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, a morphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun.Template:Sfn A relatively small group of feminine nouns have unique suppletion forms that are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms.Template:Sfn The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms:Template:Sfn
Process Masculine Feminine Meaning Adding of affix Template:IPA Template:IPA dog vowel change Template:IPA Template:IPA rat consonant change Template:IPA Template:IPA dry vowel/consonant change Template:IPA Template:IPA hot suppletive form Template:IPA Template:IPA man/woman masculine only Template:IPA --- crow feminine only --- Template:IPA fly
Some nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Urdu or English, follow a slightly different gender system. Notably, many words borrowed from Urdu have different genders in Kashmiri.Template:Sfn
Case
There are five cases in Kashmiri: nominative, dative, ergative, ablative and vocative.Template:Sfn Case is expressed via suffixation of the noun.
Kashmiri utilizes an ergative-absolutive case structure when the verb is in simple past tense.Template:Sfn Thus, in these sentences, the subject of a transitive verb is marked in the ergative case and the object in nominative, which is identical to how the subject of an intransitive verb is marked.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn[39] However, in sentences constructed in any other tense, or in past tense sentences with intransitive verbs, a nominative-dative paradigm is adopted, with objects (whether direct or indirect) generally marked in dative case.Template:Sfn
Other case distinctions, such as locative, instrumental, genitive, comitative and allative, are marked by postpositions rather than suffixation.Template:Sfn
Noun morphology
The following table illustrates Kashmiri noun declension according to gender, number and case.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural Nom. -Ø -Ø -Ø -Ø Erg. -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:LangDat. -Template:IPA or -Template:IPA
Template:Lang or Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:LangAbl. -Template:IPA or -Template:IPA
Template:Lang or Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:LangVoc. -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
Verbs
Kashmiri verbs are declined according to tense and person, and to a lesser extent, gender. Tense, along with certain distinctions of aspect, is formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem (minus the infinitive ending - /un/), and in many cases by the addition of various modal auxiliaries.Template:Sfn Postpositions fulfill numerous adverbial and semantic roles.Template:Sfn
Tense
Present tense in Kashmiri is an auxiliary construction formed by a combination of the copula and the imperfective suffix -/aːn/ added to the verb stem. The various copula forms agree with their subject according to gender and number, and are provided below with the verb /jun/ (to come):Template:Sfn
Present Masculine Feminine 1st Person Sing. Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Sing. Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person Sing. Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang1st Person Pl. Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Pl. Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person Pl. Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang
Past tense in Kashmiri is significantly more complex than the other tenses, and is subdivided into three past tense distinctions.Template:Sfn The simple (sometimes called proximate) past refers to completed past actions. Remote past refers to actions that lack this in-built perfective aspect. Indefinite past refers to actions performed a long time ago, and is often used in historical narrative or storytelling contexts.Template:Sfn
As described above, Kashmiri is a split-ergative language; in all three of these past tense forms, the subjects of transitive verbs are marked in the ergative case and direct objects in the nominative. Intransitive subjects are marked in the nominative.Template:Sfn Nominative arguments, whether subjects or objects, dictate gender, number and person marking on the verb.Template:Sfn[40]
Verbs of the simple past tense are formed via the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, which usually undergoes certain uniform morphophonemic changes. First and third person verbs of this type do not take suffixes and agree with the nominative object in gender and number, but there are second person verb endings. The entire simple past tense paradigm of transitive verbs is illustrated below using the verb /parun/ ("to read"):Template:Sfn
Simple Past (Transitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Non-honorific Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangHonorific Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang
A group of irregular intransitive verbs (special intransitives), take a different set of endings in addition to the morphophonemic changes that affect most past tense verbs.Template:Sfn
Simple Past (Special Intransitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person -Ø -Ø -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
Intransitive verbs in the simple past are conjugated the same as intransitives in the indefinite past tense form.Template:Sfn
Simple Past (Intransitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
In contrast to the simple past, verb stems are unchanged in the indefinite and remote past, although the addition of the tense suffixes does cause some morphophonetic change.Template:Sfn Transitive verbs are declined according to the following paradigm:Template:Sfn
Indefinite Past (Transitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st/3rd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
Remote Past (Transitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st/3rd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
As in the simple past, "special intransitive" verbs take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past:Template:Sfn
Indefinite Past (Special Intransitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
Remote Past (Special Intransitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Perso -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
Regular intransitive verbs also take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past, subject to some morphophonetic variation:Template:Sfn
Indefinite Past (Intransitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
Remote Past (Intransitive) Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
Future tense intransitive verbs are formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem:Template:Sfn
Future (Intransitive) Singular Plural 1st Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
The future tense of transitive verbs, however, is formed by adding suffixes that agree with both the subject and direct object according to number, in a complex fashion:Template:Sfn
Future (Transitive) Singular Object Plural Object 1st Person Sing. -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang1st Person Pl. -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Sing. -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Pl. -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person Sing. -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person Pl. -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
Aspect
There are two main aspectual distinctions in Kashmiri, perfective and imperfective. Both employ a participle formed by the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, as well as the fully conjugated auxiliary /aːsun/ ("to be")—which agrees according to gender, number and person with the object (for transitive verbs) or the subject (for intransitive verbs).Template:Sfn
Like the auxiliary, the participle suffix used with the perfective aspect (expressing completed or concluded action) agrees in gender and number with the object (for transitive verbs) or subject (for intransitives) as illustrated below:Template:Sfn
Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural -Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang-Template:IPA
Template:Lang
The imperfective (expressing habitual or progressive action) is simpler, taking the participle suffix -/aːn/ in all forms, with only the auxiliary showing agreement.Template:Sfn A type of iterative aspect can be expressed by reduplicating the imperfective participle.Template:Sfn
Pronouns
Pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case, although only third person pronouns are overtly gendered. Also in third person, a distinction is made between three degrees of proximity, called proximate, remote I and remote II.Template:Sfn
Nominative Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA or Template:IPA
Template:Lang or Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA or Template:IPA
Template:Lang or Template:Lang3rd Person proximate Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Langremote I Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Langremote II Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang/sɔ/
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang
Ergative Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person proximate Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Langremote I Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Langremote II Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang
Dative Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person proximate Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Langremote I Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Langremote II Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang
Ablative Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang2nd Person Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang3rd Person proximate Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Langremote I Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Langremote II Template:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:LangTemplate:IPA
Template:Lang
There is also a dedicated genitive pronoun set, in contrast to the way that the genitive is constructed adverbially elsewhere. As with future tense, these forms agree with both the subject and direct object in person and number.Template:Sfn
Masculine Feminine singular plural singular plural 1st Sing. Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 1st Pl. Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 2nd Sing. Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 2nd Pl. Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 3rd Sing. Prox. Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 3rd Pl. Prox. Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 3rd Sing. R I Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 3rd Pl. R I Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 3rd Sing. R II Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA 3rd Pl. R II Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
Adjectives
There are two kinds of adjectives in Kashmiri, those that agree with their referent noun (according to case, gender and number) and those that are not declined at all.[41] Most adjectives are declined, and generally take the same endings and gender-specific stem changes as nouns.Template:Sfn The declinable adjective endings are provided in the table below, using the adjective /wɔzul/ ("red"):Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Among those adjectives not declined are adjectives that end in -lad or -a, adjectives borrowed from other languages, and a few isolated irregulars.Template:Sfn
The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed with the words tsor ("more") and sitha ("most"), respectively.Template:Sfn
Numerals
Within the Kashmir language, numerals are separated into cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers.Template:Sfn These numeral forms, as well as their aggregative (both, all the five, etc.), multiplicative (two times, four times, etc.), and emphatic forms (only one, only three, etc.) are provided by the table below.Template:Sfn
- Template:IPA Template:Lang for its masculine genre and Template:IPA Template:Lang for its feminine genre is also known as Template:IPA Template:Lang and Template:IPA Template:Lang respectively.[42]
Vocabulary
Kashmiri is an Indo-Aryan language and was heavily influenced by Sanskrit, especially early on.[43][44] After the arrival of Islamic administrative rule in India, Kashmiri acquired many Persian loanwords.[44] In modern times, Kashmiri vocabulary has been imported from Hindustani and Punjabi.[45]
Preservation of old Indo-Aryan vocabulary
Kashmiri retains several features of Old Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi.[17] Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from the Vedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-form yodvai (meaning if), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use the word yadi instead.[17]
First person pronoun
Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. The Indo-European root for this is reconstructed as *eǵHom, which is preserved in Sanskrit as aham and in Avestan Persian as azam. This contrasts with the m- form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such as ma(-m). However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced with m- in words such as ma-n and mai. However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' is ba/bi/bo in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the other me terms. 'Mine' is myon in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature include Dogri (aun vs me-), Gujarati (hu-n vs ma-ri), Konkani (hā̃v vs mhazo), and Braj (hau-M vs mai-M). The Iranian Pashto preserves it too (za vs. maa).[46]
Variations
There are very minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims.[47] For 'fire', a traditional Hindu uses the word Template:Lang Template:IPA while a Muslim more often uses the Arabic word Template:Lang Template:IPA.[48]
Sample text
Perso-Arabic script
Art. 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
Sharada script
Verses by Lalleshwari:[50]
"I kept reciting the unique divine word "Om" and kept it safe in my heart through my resolute dedication and love. I was simply ash and by its divine grace got metamorphosed into gold."
One who recites the divine word "Omkār" by devotion is capable to build a bridge between his own and the cosmic consciousness. By staying committed to this sacred word, one doesn't require any other mantra out of thousands others.
See also
- Kashmir Valley
- Kashmiri Wikipedia
- List of Kashmiri poets
- List of topics on the land and the people of “Jammu and Kashmir”
- Shina language
- States of India by Kashmiri speakers
References
- ↑ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
- ↑ Template:E20
- ↑ Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2018. The precise figures from the 2011 census are 6,554,36 for Kashmiri as a "mother tongue" and 6,797,587 for Kashmiri as a "language" (which includes closely related smaller dialects/languages).
- ↑ Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri. Kashmir News Network: Language Section (koshur.org). Retrieved 2007-06-02.
- ↑ Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris{{#if:Snedden|, Snedden}. Oxford University Press(2015). ISBN 978-1-84904-622-0
- ↑ Languages of Erstwhile State of Jammu Kashmir (A Preliminary Study), Shakil, Mohsin(2012).
- ↑ CCI defers approval of census results until elections, Kiani, Khaleeq. DAWN.COM(2018-05-28). Retrieved 2020-03-17.
- ↑ Scheduled Languages of India. Central Institute of Indian Languages. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
- ↑ The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir (India). General Administrative Department of the Government of Jammu & Kashmir (India). Retrieved 2007-06-02.
- ↑ The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020. The Gazette of India(27 September 2020). Retrieved 27 September 2020.
- ↑ Parliament passes JK Official Languages Bill, 2020. Rising Kashmir(23 September 2020). Retrieved 23 September 2020.
- ↑ BJP president congratulates J-K people on passing of Jammu and Kashmir Official Language Bill 2020, ANI. BW Businessworld. Retrieved 2021-06-27.
- ↑ Kashmiri: A language of India. Ethnologue. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
- ↑ Kashmiri made compulsory subject in schools. One India. Retrieved 2016-01-01.
- ↑ Jammu And Kashmir State Board Of School Education. jkbose.ac.in. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
- ↑ Koshur: Spoken Kashmiri: A Language Course: Transcription. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 The Literary Heritage of Kashmir. Mittal Publications.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedMouton de Gruyter - ↑ Sarada. Lawrence. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
- ↑ The Sharada Script: Origin and Development. Kashmiri Overseas Association. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
- ↑ Kashmiri (कॉशुर / كٲشُر). Omniglot. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
- ↑ The World's Writing Systems{{#if:Daniels & Bright|, Daniels & Bright}(1996)
- ↑ Kashmir and Template:Sic People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society{{#if:Kaw|, Kaw}. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation(2004). ISBN 9788176485371
- ↑ The Written Languages of the World: A Survey of the Degree and Modes of Use : India : Book 1 Constitutional Languages{{#if:Mahapatra|, Mahapatra}. Presses Université Laval(1989). ISBN 9782763771861
- ↑ Braj B. Kachru: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri. www.koshur.org. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
- ↑ Spoken Kashmiri: A Language Course. www.koshur.org. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
- ↑ Valley divide impacts Kashmiri, Pandit youth switch to Devnagari. Indian Express. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
- ↑ Devnagari Script for Kashmiri: A Study in its Necessity, Feasibility and Practicality. Kashmiri Overseas Association. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
- ↑ Kashmiri (deva). r12a.github.io. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
- ↑ Everson, Michael & Pravin Satpute. (2006). Proposal to add four characters for Kashmiri to the BMP of the UCS.
- ↑ Project ZAAN: Basic Reader for Kashmiri Language. www.koausa.org. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
- ↑ One Page Primer on Kashmiri Language, Raina, Author M. K.. M K Raina(2020-05-04). Retrieved 2020-11-26.
- ↑ Government of India. (2009). Proposal to add six characters in the Devanagari block for representation of Kashmiri language in Devanagari script.
- ↑ Pandey, Anshuman. (2009). Comments on India’s Proposal to Add Devanagari Characters for Kashmiri.
- ↑ The central vowels are typically transcribed Template:Angle bracket and Template:Angle bracket when transliterating Arabic script, Template:Angle bracket and Template:Angle bracket when transliterating Nagari.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Pandey, Anshuman. (2009). Proposal to Encode the Sharada Script in ISO/IEC 10646.
- ↑ On the Sarada Alphabet{{#if:Grierson|, Grierson}(1916)
- ↑ Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri (2002). Kashmir News Network, pp.80.
- ↑ Bhatt, Rajesh (2007)."Ergativity in Indo-Aryan Languages", MIT Ergativity Seminar, pp.6.
- ↑ Zakharyin, Boris (2015). "Indo-Aryan Ergativity and its Analogues in Languages of Central and Western Eurasia", The Poznań Society for the Advancement of Arts and Sciences, PL ISSN 0079-4740, pp.66.
- ↑ Koshur 2002, pp.79.
- ↑ Kashir Dictionary Vol 1{{#if:Toushikhani S. k|, Toushikhani S. k}
- ↑ The Encyclopedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information, Volumes 15-16{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Encyclopædia Britannica(1911)
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Indo-Islamic Relations{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. KnowledgeCity Books(2002)
- ↑ Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Elsevier(6 April 2010). ISBN 978-0-08-087775-4
- ↑ In hot pursuit of language in prehistory: essays in the four fields of anthropology. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2008.
- ↑ Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevier, 2008(6 April 2010).
- ↑ Kundalini: The Evolutionary Energy in Man{{#if:Krishna|, Krishna}. Shambhala(1967). ISBN 978-1-57062-280-9
- ↑ Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Kashmiri Language.
- ↑ Lal Vakh in Sharada script.
86. the word koshur(𑆑𑆳𑆯𑆶𑆫𑇀) written on New Testament in Kashmiri, (manuscript)
Bibliography
- The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Iran Culture House(2013)
- Modern Kashmiri Grammar{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Dunwoody Press(2006). ISBN 1-931546-07-X
- A Grammar of the Kashmiri Language{{#if:Wade|, Wade}. SPCK(1888)
External links
Template:InterWikiTemplate:Commons categoryTemplate:Wikivoyage
- Kashir Kitab level 1 : (state level school reader in Kashmiri for non-Kashmiri speaking students){{#if:Bhat|, Bhat}. Central Institute of Indian Languages(1982)
- Urdu Kashmiri Reader{{#if:Bhat|, Bhat}. JK Press(1988)
- Kạ̄shur-Hindi Reader{{#if:Ganjoo|, Ganjoo}. Kạ̄shur Department, University of Kashmir(1979)
- A dictionary of the Kashmiri language{{#if:Grierson|, Grierson}. Asiatic Society of Bengal(1932)
- Hindi-Kashmiri Common Words{{#if:Handoo|, Handoo}. Central Institute of Indian languages(1975)
- Kashmiri Phonetic Reader{{#if:Handoo|, Handoo}. Central Institute of Indian Languages(1973)
- A pronouncing dictionary of Kashmiri language, Hassan, Sheeba. Digital Dictionaries of South Asia.
- Hindi-Kashmiri Conversational Guide{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Central Hindi Directorate, Government of India(1990)
- Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development ( Government of India )(1988)
- Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development ( Government of India )(1988)
- Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development ( Government of India )(1988)
- A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs & Sayings: Explained and Illustrated From the Rich and Interesting Folklore of the Valley{{#if:Hinton|, Hinton}. Education Society's Press(1885)
- Hook, Peter E.. 1976. Is Kashmiri an SVO language? Indian Linguistics 37: 133–142.
- Indo Wordnet : A wordnet of Indian languages.
- Achar Zan{{#if:Kamil|, Kamil}. Walidarul Kitabat(1966)
- Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class1
- Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 2
- Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 3
- Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 6
- Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 8
- Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 10
- Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri
- Lexical Borrowings in Kashmiri{{#if:Koul|, Koul}. Indian Institute of Language Studies(2008). ISBN 9788186323298
- An Intensive Course in Kashmiri{{#if:Koul|, Koul}. Central Institute of Indian Languages(1985). ISBN 9780781801768
- An intermediate course in Kashmiri Language{{#if:Koul|, Koul}. Central Institute of Indian Languages(1995). ISBN 8173420270
- A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs{{#if:Koul|, Koul}. Indian Institute of Language Studies(1992). ISBN 9788186323212
- kəːʃir dəpitʲ dikʃənəriː ( A dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs ){{#if:Koul|, Koul}. Central Institute of Indian Languages(2000)
- Nursery Rhymes in Kashmiri{{#if:Koul|, Koul}. Central Institute of Indian Languages(1996)
- English – Kashmiri Administrative Terminology{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology(2010)
- Kashmiri-English Dictionary for Second Language Learners{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Central Institute of Indian Languages(2000)
- Library and Information Science Glossary (English-Hindi-Kashmiri){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India(2018)
- "Neab", Kashmiri Language Literary Magazine
- An advance course in Kashmiri{{#if:Raina|, Raina}. Central institute of Indian languages(2011)
- "Sangarmal", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
- Kaesher Lugaat ( A dictionary of the Kashmiri Language){{#if:Shauq|, Shauq}. Ali Mohammad and Sons(2017)
- "Soan Meeraas", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
- Tests of Language Proficiency : Kashmiri{{#if:Subbiah|, Subbiah}. Central Institute of Indian Languages(2000)
- Kashir Dikshanri{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages(1968–1980)
- Kashir Dikshanri{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages(1968–1980)
- Kashir Dikshanri{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages(1968–1980)
- Kashir Dikshanri{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages(1968–1980)
- Kashir Dikshanri{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages(1968–1980)
- Kashir Dikshanri{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages(1968–1980)
- Kashir Dikshanri{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages(1968–1980)
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