Chuhra

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Template:ForTemplate:Infobox caste Chuhra, also known as Bhanghi and Balmiki,[1][2] is a Dalit caste in India and Pakistan.[3][4][5] Populated regions include the Punjab region of India and Pakistan, as well as Uttar Pradesh in India, among other parts of the Indian subcontinent such as southern India.[6][7][8][9] Their traditional occupation is sweeping, a "polluting" occupation that caused them to be considered untouchables in the Hindu caste system.[10]

In the early twentieth century, Chuhras of the northern Indian subcontinent were divided into the sub-castes including the Sahotra, Gill, Mattu, Sindhu, Ladhar, Untwal, Dharival, Kandabari, Khosar, Borat, Chhapriband, and Lal Begi.[11][6]

Originally following the Balmiki sect of Hinduism, many Chuhras converted to Sikhism, Islam and Christianity during the colonial era in India.[12] Today, Churas in Indian Punjab are largely followers of Sikhism.[13] A minority continue to follow Christianity, as well as Hinduism, which incorporates elements of Sikhism in its practices.[13][14][1] In Pakistani Punjab 90-95% of its Christian population are Dalit Christians of the Chuhra caste; other Chuhras practice Islam or continue to follow Hinduism.[15][8][16][17]

Etymology and history

File:Valmiki train Lava Kushas in Art of Archery.jpg
The Chuhras claim descent from Balmiki, composer of the Ramayana.

The word "Chuhra" is derived from the word "Shudra", one of the varnas in Hinduism.[18]

The Bhangis claim descent from Balmiki (also known as Lal Beg or Balashah), a Brahmin who composed the Ramayana and who is worshipped as a Hindu patron saint by the Bhangis.[19][20][21] The word Bhangi is derived from Bhanga which means broken. The Bhangi community claims that they were made to sweep the floor and do other menial jobs when they refused to convert into Islam during Mughal era.[19]

Originally following the Balmiki sect of Hinduism, many Chuhras converted to Sikhism, Islam and Christianity during the colonial era in India.[12]

In 1932 in colonial India, the Balmiki Sabha was created to advocate for the rights of the Chuhras.[22] The Balmiki Sabha was applauded by the Indian National Congress in the mid-1940s for heralding its political message among the Chuhras.[22]

In Pakistan, the word "Chuhra" became a slur directed against poorer people, especially menial workers whose jobs were reserved for Hindus, Christians, and religious minorities. The term later became a slur against religious minorities in general, especially Christians.[23][24]

By religion

In Hinduism

As with the Lal Begi, the majority of Hindu Chuhras belong to the Balmiki sect of Hinduism.[25] In the Baluchistan Province of colonial India, the majority of Chuhras in the 1931 Indian Census thus recorded themselves as "Hindu Balmiki".[26]

In Christianity

Template:Further In colonial India, there were waves of conversions to Christianity among the Chuhra and Chamar between the 1870s and 1930s in the Punjab Province and United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.[27] The censuses of British India became increasingly confused regarding Chuhra Dalits' religious beliefs because the respondents were allowed to choose their designation. Jeffrey Cox says that in the 1920s and 1930s they described themselves variously as Template:Quote

In what is now Pakistan, the conversions to Christianity and consequent invention of a new identity were largely responsible for the name Chuhra becoming archaic. It is often considered pejorative and applied to almost all of the Christians in the country, whom John O'Brien describes as "descended from one tribe-caste of oppressed and excluded people".[28] The status of the Christian Chuhra as Dalit Christians continues to be "distinct feature of social discrimination" against them.[15]

In Islam

Template:Main Chuhras who converted from Hinduism to Islam were known as Musalis.[16][29] Despite placing great emphasis on social equality and brotherhood among all Muslims, early South Asian Muslims did not address the problem of untouchability for the Chuhras or Bhangis. As a result, only a very few members from this community ever embraced Islam, most converting to Christianity. Chuhras adopted the externals of Islam by keeping Muslim names, observing Ramadan and burial of the dead. However they never underwent circumcision. Only a few cases of circumcision have ever been recorded for Chuhras or Bhangis and these were Chuhras who lived very near Jama Masjid. The Chuhras did not accept Mohammed as their prophet and also continued observing traditional Hindu festivals, such as Diwali, Raki and Holi. Just like their Hindu brethren they continued with their traditional caste work. In India the caste system was fully observed by Muslims. Untouchability was fully accepted and justified by the Muslims in India and the caste system was fully observed by Muslim society. In the same way that Hindu Chuhras who were barred from entrance to temples in historical times, Muslim Chuhras are still today barred from entrance to mosques and never allowed to go past the outside steps to Muslim religious places. The Untouchability even extended after death; Chuhras were to bury their dead in separate graveyards away from other Muslims.[30]

In Sikhism

Chuhras who converted from Hinduism to Sikhism became known as Mazhabi Sikhs.[16][31]

Demographics

According to the 2001 Census of India, the Balmikis formed 11.2 per cent of the Scheduled Caste population in Punjab[32] and were the second-most populous Scheduled Caste in Delhi National Capital Region.[33] [34]

The 2011 Census of India for Uttar Pradesh showed the Balmiki population, which was classified as a Scheduled Caste, as 1,319,241.[35]

The Balmikis represent 0.7 per cent in Andhra Pradesh and are mainly concentrated in Anantapur, Kurnool and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh.[36][37] They also built a temple of Valmiki in Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh.[38] In Andhra Pradesh they are known as Boya Valmikis or Valmikis.[39]

In the UK, the Council of Valmiki Sabhas UK was established to represent the Balmiki.[40][41]

Sub-castes

The following are sub-castes of the Balmiki/Bhangi/Chuhra caste:[1]

Use as an epithet

The location "Chuhra-Chamar" is a locution used derisively by some members of the Jat caste to refer to both Dalit castes, the Chuhra and Chamar.[43][44]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Valmiki{{#if:Leslie|, Leslie}. Ashgate Publishing(2003). ISBN 0754634302
  2. ↑ Hindi schedule Literature and the Politics of Representation{{#if:Hunt|, Hunt}. Routledge(2014). ISBN 978-1-31755-952-8
  3. ↑ Margins of Faith: Dalit and Tribal Christianity in India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. SAGE Publishing India(17 August 2010). ISBN 978-93-86042-93-4
  4. ↑ Divine Passions: The Social Construction of Emotion in India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. University of California Press(1990). ISBN 978-0-520-30467-3
  5. ↑ Bhangi, Scavenger in Indian Society: Marginality, Identity, and Politicization of the Community{{#if:Sharma|, Sharma}. M.D. Publications(1995). ISBN 978-8-18588-070-9
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 India's Communities{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(1998). ISBN 978-0-19-563354-2
  7. ↑ Religion and Dalit Liberation: An Examination of Perspectives{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Manohar Publishers & Distributors(2002). ISBN 978-81-7304-327-7
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Christianities in Asia{{#if:Phan|, Phan}. John Wiley & Sons(2011). ISBN 978-1405160896
  9. ↑ Manual Scavenging in India: A Disgrace to the Country{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Concept Publishing Company(1997). ISBN 978-81-7022-639-0
  10. ↑ Cultural Anthropology: Tribes, States, and the Global System{{#if:Bodley|, Bodley}. Rowman Altamira(2011)
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 The Scheduled Castes, Volume 10{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(1995). ISBN 9780195637427
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 A History of Christian Conversion{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(5 May 2020). ISBN 978-0-19-991092-2
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Census.
  14. ↑ Church and Religious 'Other'{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Bloomsbury Publishing(25 September 2008). ISBN 978-0-567-04726-7
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Dalit Christians and Caste Consciousness in Pakistan(23 April 2015). Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Religion and Dalit Liberation: An Examination of Perspectives{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Manohar Publishers & Distributors(2002). ISBN 978-81-7304-327-7
  17. ↑ 'Untouchable' caste identity haunts Pakistani Christians like Asia Bibi. World Watch Monitor(1 November 2018). Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  18. ↑ Caste, Tribes & Culture of India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Ess Ess Publications(1977)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Women Heroes and Dalit Assertion in North India: Culture, Identity and Politics{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. SAGE Publications(7 November 2006). ISBN 9780761935377
  20. ↑ Scheduled Castes and the Struggle Against Inequality: Strategies to Empower the Marginalised{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Indian Social Institute(1983)
  21. ↑ Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Valmiki{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(22 November 2017). ISBN 978-1-351-77299-0
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 The Scheduled Castes{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(1995). ISBN 978-0-19-563742-7
  23. ↑ The language curse: How proud community names have been reduced to insults in Pakistan. scroll.in. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
  24. ↑ Pakistani politician draws censure for Christian slur. UCA News. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
  25. ↑ The Scheduled Castes{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(1995). ISBN 978-0-19-563742-7
  26. ↑ Beyond the Village: Sociological Explorations{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Indian Institute of Advanced Study(1972)
  27. ↑ Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(26 June 2008). ISBN 978-0-19-826377-7
  28. ↑ Church and Religious 'Other'{{#if:O'Brien|, O'Brien}. A & C Black(2008). ISBN 978-0-56703-286-7
  29. ↑ Ahmadi and Christian Socio-Political Responses to Pakistan's Blasphemy Laws: A Comparison, Contrast and Critique with Special Reference to the Christian Church in Pakistan{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Langham Publishing(30 September 2017). ISBN 978-1-78368-329-1
  30. ↑ Bhangi, Scavenger in Indian Society: Marginality, Identity, and Politicization of the Community{{#if:Sharma|, Sharma}. M.D. Publications(1995). ISBN 978-8-18588-070-9
  31. ↑ Sikhism, Its Philosophy and History{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Institute of Sikh Studies(1997). ISBN 978-81-85815-03-9
  32. ↑ Punjab: Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes. Census I. Retrieved 2015-01-05.
  33. ↑ Delhi: Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes. Census India. Retrieved 2015-01-05.
  34. ↑ Leslie, J.(2003) Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Valmiki. Ashgate publishing. Template:ISBN
  35. ↑ A-10 Individual Scheduled Caste Primary Census Abstract Data and its Appendix - Uttar Pradesh. Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2017-02-04.
  36. ↑ Caste,Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh:Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories. Osmania University.
  37. ↑ All India anthropometric survey: analysis of data. South Zone{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Anthropological Survey of India(1989)
  38. ↑ The Festival of Pirs: Popular Islam and Shared Devotion in South India{{#if:Mohammad|, Mohammad}. Oxford University Press(December 2013). ISBN 9780199997596
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Committees and Commissions in India, 1947-73: 1979 (2 v.){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Concept Publishing Company(1975). ISBN 9788170225089
  40. ↑ Hinduism Today: An Introduction{{#if:Jacobs|, Jacobs}. A & C Black(2010)
  41. ↑ Memorandum submitted by Central Valmiki Sabha International (UK). United Kingdom Parliament(12 November 2009). Retrieved 19 May 2015.
  42. ↑ Religious Transformation in South Asia: The Meanings of Conversion in Colonial Punjab{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(18 September 2008). ISBN 978-0-19-954822-4
  43. ↑ Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Valmiki{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(22 November 2017). ISBN 978-1-351-77299-0
  44. ↑ Social boycotts, segregation. Frontline(21 May 2004). Retrieved 1 October 2020.

Further reading

  • Religious Transformation in South Asia : The Meanings of Conversion in Colonial Punjab: The Meanings of Conversion in Colonial Punjab{{#if:Harding|, Harding}. Oxford University Press(2008). ISBN 978-0-19156-333-1
  • Rethinking State Politics in India: Regions Within Regions{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2012). ISBN 978-1-13670-400-0
  • Joothan: A Dalit's Life{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Popular Prakashan(2003). ISBN 978-8-18560-463-3
  • Peasants in India's Non-Violent Revolution: Practice and Theory{{#if:Mukherjee|, Mukherjee}. SAGE(2004). ISBN 978-0-76199-686-6
  • The Bhangi: A Sweeper Caste, Its Socio-economic Portraits : with Special Reference to Jodhpur City{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Popular Prakashan(1992). ISBN 978-8-17154-550-6
  • The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2014). ISBN 978-0-19969-930-8

Template:Ethnic and social groups of the Punjab

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