Flamingo

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Flamingos or flamingoesTemplate:Efn Template:IPAc-en are a type of wading bird in the family Phoenicopteridae, which is the only extant family in the order Phoenicopteriformes. There are four flamingo species distributed throughout the Americas (including the Caribbean), and two species native to Afro-Eurasia.

A group of flamingoes is called a "flamboyance".[1]

Etymology

File:Greaterflamingo-uenozoo2008.ogv

The name flamingo comes from Portuguese or Spanish Template:Lang ("flame-colored"), which in turn comes from Provençal Template:Lang – a combination of Template:Lang ("flame") and a Germanic-like suffix -ing. The word may also have been influenced by the Spanish ethnonym Template:Lang ("Fleming" or "Flemish"). The name of the genus, Phoenicopterus, is from the Greek Template:Wikt-lang Template:Transliteration, Template:Literally);[2] other genera names include Phoeniconaias, which means "crimson/red water nymph (or naiad)", and Phoenicoparrus, which means "crimson/red bird (though, an unknown bird of omen)".

Taxonomy and systematics

The family Phoenicopteridae was introduced by the French zoologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1831, with Phoenicopterus as the type genus.[3][4]

Traditionally, the long-legged Ciconiiformes, probably a paraphyletic assemblage, have been considered the flamingos' closest relatives and the family was included in the order. Usually, the ibises and spoonbills of the Threskiornithidae were considered their closest relatives within this order. Earlier genetic studies, such as those of Charles Sibley and colleagues, also supported this relationship.[5] Relationships to the waterfowl were considered as well,[6] especially as flamingos are parasitized by feather lice of the genus Anaticola, which are otherwise exclusively found on ducks and geese.[7] The peculiar presbyornithids were used to argue for a close relationship between flamingos, waterfowl, and waders.[8] A 2002 paper concluded they are waterfowl,[9] but a 2014 comprehensive study of bird orders found that flamingos and grebes are not waterfowl, but rather are part of Columbea, along with doves, sandgrouse, and mesites.[10]

Relationship with grebes

Many molecular and morphological studies support a relationship between grebes and flamingos.

Recent molecular studies have suggested a relation with grebes,[11][12][13] while morphological evidence also strongly supports a relationship between flamingos and grebes. They hold at least 11 morphological traits in common, which are not found in other birds. Many of these characteristics have been previously identified on flamingos, but not on grebes.[14] The fossil palaelodids can be considered evolutionarily, and ecologically, intermediate between flamingos and grebes.[15]

For the grebe-flamingo clade, the taxon Mirandornithes ("miraculous birds" due to their extreme divergence and apomorphies) has been proposed. Alternatively, they could be placed in one order, with Phoenocopteriformes taking priority.[15]

Phylogeny

Living flamingos:[16]

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Species

Six extant flamingo species are recognized by most sources, and were formerly placed in one genus (have common characteristics) – Phoenicopterus. As a result of a 2014 publication,[17] the family was reclassified into two genera.[18] In 2020, the family had three recognized genera, according to HBW.[19]

Image Species Geographic location
Greater flamingoTemplate:Pb(Phoenicopterus roseus) Old World Parts of Africa, S. Europe and S. and SW Asia (most widespread flamingo).
Lesser flamingoTemplate:Pb(Phoeniconaias minor) Africa (e.g. Great Rift Valley) to NW India (most numerous flamingo).
Chilean flamingoTemplate:Pb(Phoenicopterus chilensis) New World Temperate S. South America.
James's flamingoTemplate:Pb(Phoenicoparrus jamesi) High Andes in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina.
Andean flamingoTemplate:Pb(Phoenicoparrus andinus) High Andes in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina.
American flamingoTemplate:Pb(Phoenicopterus ruber) Caribbean islands, Caribbean Mexico, southern Florida,[20] Belize, coastal Colombia, northern Brazil, Venezuela and Galápagos Islands.

Prehistoric species of flamingo:

Description

Flamingos usually stand on one leg with the other tucked beneath the body. The reason for this behaviour is not fully understood. One theory is that standing on one leg allows the birds to conserve more body heat, given that they spend a significant amount of time wading in cold water.[30] However, the behaviour also takes place in warm water and is also observed in birds that do not typically stand in water. An alternative theory is that standing on one leg reduces the energy expenditure for producing muscular effort to stand and balance on one leg. A study on cadavers showed that the one-legged pose could be held without any muscle activity, while living flamingos demonstrate substantially less body sway in a one-legged posture.[31] As well as standing in the water, flamingos may stamp their webbed feet in the mud to stir up food from the bottom.[32]

Flamingos are capable flyers, and flamingos in captivity often require wing clipping to prevent escape. A pair of African flamingos which had not yet had their wings clipped escaped from the Wichita, Kansas, zoo in 2005. One was spotted in Texas 14 years later. It had been seen previously by birders in Texas, Wisconsin and Louisiana.[33]

American and Chilean flamingos in captivity
Flamingos in flight at Río Lagartos, Yucatán, Mexico

Young flamingos hatch with grayish-red plumage, but adults range from light pink to bright red due to aqueous bacteria and beta-carotene obtained from their food supply. A well-fed, healthy flamingo is more vibrantly colored, thus a more desirable mate; a white or pale flamingo, however, is usually unhealthy or malnourished. Captive flamingos are a notable exception; even if adequately nourished, they may turn a pale pink if they are not fed carotene at levels comparable to the wild.[34]

The greater flamingo is the tallest of the six different species of flamingos, standing at Template:Convert with a weight up to Template:Convert, and the shortest flamingo species (the lesser) has a height of Template:Convert and weighs Template:Convert. Flamingos can have a wingspan as small as Template:Convert to as big as Template:Convert.[35]

Flamingos can open their bills by raising the upper jaw as well as by dropping the lower. [36]

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Behavior and ecology

Feeding

File:Caribbean Flamingo vocalization.webm

American flamingo and offspring: The Template:Linktext (curved) bill is adapted to bottom scooping.

Flamingos filter-feed on brine shrimp and blue-green algae as well as insect larvae, small insects, mollusks and crustaceans, making them omnivores. Their bills are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they eat, and are uniquely used upside-down. The filtering of food items is assisted by hairy structures called lamellae, which line the mandibles, and the large, rough-surfaced tongue. The pink or reddish color of flamingos comes from carotenoids in their diet of animal and plant plankton. American flamingos are a brighter red color because of the beta carotene availability in their food while the lesser flamingos are a paler pink due to ingesting a smaller amount of this pigment. These carotenoids are broken down into pigments by liver enzymes.[37] The source of this varies by species, and affects the color saturation. Flamingos whose sole diet is blue-green algae are darker than those that get it second-hand by eating animals that have digested blue-green algae.[38]

Vocalization sounds

Flamingos are considered very noisy birds with their noises and vocalizations ranging from grunting or growling to nasal honking. Vocalizations play an important role in parent-chick recognition, ritualized displays, and keeping large flocks together. Variations in vocalizations exist in the voices of different species of flamingos.[39][40]

Life cycle

Chilean flamingo feeding its young
Colony of lesser flamingos at Lake Nakuru

Flamingos are very social birds; they live in colonies whose population can number in the thousands. These large colonies are believed to serve three purposes for the flamingos: avoiding predators, maximizing food intake, and using scarce suitable nesting sites more efficiently.[41] Before breeding, flamingo colonies split into breeding groups of about 15 to 50 birds. Both males and females in these groups perform synchronized ritual displays.[42] The members of a group stand together and display to each other by stretching their necks upwards, then uttering calls while head-flagging, and then flapping their wings.[43] The displays do not seem directed towards an individual, but occur randomly.[43] These displays stimulate "synchronous nesting" (see below) and help pair up those birds that do not already have mates.[42]

Flamingos form strong pair bonds, although in larger colonies, flamingos sometimes change mates, presumably because more mates are available to choose.[44] Flamingo pairs establish and defend nesting territories. They locate a suitable spot on the mudflat to build a nest (the female usually selects the place).[43] Copulation usually occurs during nest building, which is sometimes interrupted by another flamingo pair trying to commandeer the nesting site for their use. Flamingos aggressively defend their nesting sites. Both the male and the female contribute to building the nest, and to protecting the nest and egg.[45] Same-sex pairs have been reported.[46]

After the chicks hatch, the only parental expense is feeding.[47] Both the male and the female feed their chicks with a kind of crop milk, produced in glands lining the whole of the upper digestive tract (not just the crop). The hormone prolactin stimulates production. Crop milk contains both fat and protein, as with mammalian milk, but unlike mammalian milk, it contains no carbohydrates.[48] (Pigeons and doves—Columbidae—also produce crop milk (just in the glands lining the crop), which contains less fat and more protein than flamingo crop milk.)[49]

For the first six days after the chicks hatch, the adults and chicks stay in the nesting sites. At around 7–12 days old, the chicks begin to move out of their nests and explore their surroundings. When they are two weeks old, the chicks congregate in groups, called "microcrèches", and their parents leave them alone. After a while, the microcrèches merge into "crèches" containing thousands of chicks. Chicks that do not stay in their crèches are vulnerable to predators.[50]

Status and conservation

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In captivity

The first flamingo hatched in a European zoo was a Chilean flamingo at Zoo Basel in Switzerland in 1958. Since then, over 389 flamingos have grown up in Basel and been distributed to other zoos around the globe.[51]

Greater, an at least 83-year-old greater flamingo, believed to be the oldest in the world, died at the Adelaide Zoo in Australia in January 2014.[52]

Zoos have used mirrors to improve flamingo breeding behaviour. The mirrors are thought to give the flamingos the impression that they are in a larger flock than they actually are.[53]

Flamingos in Ancient Roman cuisine

Pink flamingo prepared for cooking (Bardo Museum)

While many different kinds of birds were valued items in Roman food, flamingos were among the most prized in Ancient Roman cuisine. An early reference to their consumption, and especially of their tongues, is found in Pliny the Elder, who states in the Natural History:

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Although a few recipes for flamingos are found in Apicius' extant works, none refer specifically to flamingo tongues. The three flamingo recipes in the Template:Lang (On the Subject of Cooking) involve the whole creature:

  • 220 — roasted with an egg sauce, a recipe for wood pigeons, squabs, fattened fowl; flamingo is an afterthought.
  • 230 — boiled; parrot may be substituted.
  • 231 — roasted with a must sauce.[54]

Suetonius mentions flamingo tongues in his Life of Vitellius:[55]

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Martial, the poet, devoted an ironic epigram, alluding to flamingo tongues:

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There is also a mention of flamingo brains in a later, highly contentious source, detailing, in the life of Elagabalus, a food item not apparently to his liking as much as camels' heels and parrot tongues, in the belief that the latter was a prophylactic:

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Other relationship with humans

Moche ceramic depicting flamingo (200 AD). Larco Museum, Lima, Peru

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Notes

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References

  1. ↑ A Flamboyance of Flamingos and Other Brilliant Bird Group Names. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2022-05-01.
  2. ↑ Template:OEtymD
  3. ↑ Saggio di una distribuzione metodica degli animali vertebrati{{#if:Bonaparte|, Bonaparte}. Antonio Boulzaler(1831)
  4. ↑ History and Nomenclature of Avian Family-Group Names{{#if:Bock|, Bock}. American Museum of Natural History(1994)
  5. ↑ Sibley's Classification of Birds, Salzman, Eric(December 1993). Retrieved 15 November 2009.
  6. ↑ The Relationships of the Flamingos as Indicated by the Egg-White Proteins and Hemoglobins. Condor({Template:Year).
  7. ↑ Reinterpreting the origins of flamingo lice: cospeciation or host-switching?. Biology Letters({Template:Year).
  8. ↑ Osteological evidence for shorebird affinities of the flamingos. Auk({Template:Year).
  9. ↑ A New Presbyornithid Bird (Aves, Anseriformes) from the Late Cretaceous of Southern Mongolia. American Museum Novitates({Template:Year).
  10. ↑ Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds. Science({Template:Year).
  11. ↑ New nuclear evidence for the oldest divergence among neognath birds: the phylogenetic utility of ZENK (i). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution({Template:Year).
  12. ↑ Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. Biology Letters({Template:Date).
  13. ↑ A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History. Science({Template:Date).
  14. ↑ Morphological evidence for sister group relationship between flamingos (Aves: Phoenicopteridae) and grebes (Podicipedidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society({Template:Year).
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 The contribution of fossils to the reconstruction of the higher-level phylogeny of birds. Species, Phylogeny and Evolution({Template:Year).
  16. ↑ NEOAVES- COLUMBEA, Boyd, John. John Boyd's website. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
  17. ↑ A multi-locus inference of the evolutionary diversification of extant flamingos (Phoenicopteridae). BMC Evolutionary Biology({Template:Year).
  18. ↑ Gill, F and D Donsker (Eds). (2016). IOC World Bird List (v 6.3).
  19. ↑ Lesser Flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor)({Template:Year).
  20. ↑ Scientists: Florida flamingos are native to the state, News-Press, Chad Gillis, February 23, 2018. Retrieved May 29, 2019.
  21. ↑ The Paleogene fossil record of birds in Europe. Biological Reviews({Template:Year).
  22. ↑ New cranial material of the earliest filter feeding flamingo Harrisonavis croizeti (Aves, Phoenicopteridae) informs the evolution of the highly specialized filter feeding apparatus. Organisms Diversity & Evolution({Template:Year).
  23. ↑ A New Genus of Miocene Flamingo from East Africa. Ostrich({Template:Year).
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 The Pliocene and Quaternary Flamingos of Australia. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum({Template:Year).
  25. ↑ The Miocene avifauna of the Li Mae Long locality, Thailand: systematics and paleoecology. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences({Template:Year).
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 The fossil flamingos of Australia.. The Condor({Template:Year).
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Fossil Birds from Manix Lake California: Descriptions of late Pleistocene bira remains, including a new species of flamingo. Geological Survey Professional Paper({Template:Year).
  28. ↑ A Pliocene flamingo from Florida. Natural History Miscellanea({Template:Year).
  29. ↑ A Pliocene flamingo from Mexico. The Wilson Bulletin({Template:Year).
  30. ↑ Why flamingoes stand on one leg. BBC News(13 August 2009). Retrieved 9 December 2009.
  31. ↑ Mechanical evidence that flamingos can support their body on one leg with little active muscular force. Biology Letters({Template:Date).
  32. ↑ Feeding Patterns and Aggressive Behavior in Juvenile and Adult American Flamingos. The Condor({Template:Date).
  33. ↑ Fugitive flamingo spotted in Texas 14 years after escaping a Kansas zoo during storm, Wichita Eagle, Kaitlyn Alanis, May 27, 2019. Retrieved May 29, 2019.
  34. ↑ American Zoo: A Sociological Safari{{#if:Grazian|, Grazian}. Princeton University Press(2015). ISBN 978-0-691-16435-9
  35. ↑ Bradford, Alina. 2014. Flamingo Facts: Food Turns Feathers Pink. September 18. Accessed March 2018. https://www.livescience.com/27322-flamingos.html
  36. ↑ The filter-feeding and food of flamingoes (Pheonicopteri). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences({Template:Date)., page 409.
  37. ↑ Influence of Dietary Carotenoids on Plasma and Plumage Colour in the House Finch: Intra- and Intersexual Variation. Functional Ecology({Template:Date).
  38. ↑ NATURE: Fire Bird – Flamingo Facts. Pbs.org. Retrieved 2013-03-30.
  39. ↑ Caribbean Flamingo. Saint Louis Zoo.
  40. ↑ American Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) Fact Sheet: Behavior & Ecology. San Diego Zoo Global.
  41. ↑ Managing the Social Environments of Flamingos for Reproductive Success. Zoo Biology({Template:Year).
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Ogilvie, Malcolm; Carol Ogilvie (1986). Flamingos. Gloucester, UK: Alan Sutton Publishing Limited. Template:ISBN. Template:Oclc.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Studer-Thiersch, A. (1975). "Basle Zoo", pp. 121–130 in N. Duplaix-Hall and J. Kear, editors. Flamingos. Berkhamsted, United Kingdom: T. & A. D. Poyser, Template:ISBN.
  44. ↑ What 19 Years of Observation on Captive Great Flamingos Suggests about Adaptations to Breeding under Irregular Conditions. Waterbirds: The International Journal of Waterbird Biology({Template:Date).
  45. ↑ The Greater Flamingo{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. T & AD Poyser Ltd.(1975). ISBN 978-1-4081-3866-3
  46. ↑ Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity{{#if:Bagemihl|, Bagemihl}. Stonewall Inn Editions(1999). ISBN 978-0312253776
  47. ↑ Variation in Parental Care with Offspring Age in the Greater Flamingo. The Condor({Template:Year).
  48. ↑ Nutrient Composition Of American Flamingo Crop Milk.
  49. ↑ The Birder's Handbook{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Simon & Schuster, Inc.(1988). ISBN 978-0-671-62133-9
  50. ↑ Adult Aggressiveness and Crèching Behavior in the Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Colonial Waterbirds({Template:Year).
  51. ↑ Zolli feiert 50 Jahre Flamingozucht und Flamingosforschung. Basler Zeitung(13 August 2008). Retrieved 21 March 2010.
  52. ↑ Flamingo believed to be world's oldest dies at Adelaide Zoo aged 83(31 January 2014). Retrieved 31 January 2014.
  53. ↑ Colchester Zoo use mirrors to help flamingos to breed. BBC(26 July 2010). Retrieved 13 July 2020.
  54. ↑ LacusCurtius • Pliny the Elder's Natural History — Book 10.
  55. ↑ C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Vitellius, chapter 13, section 2.
  56. ↑ Benson, Elizabeth (1972) The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. New York, NY: Praeger Press.
  57. ↑ The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Thames and Hudson(1997). ISBN 978-0500018026
  58. ↑ The Book of the Faiyum{{#if:Beinlich|, Beinlich}. University of Heidelberg(2013)
  59. ↑ Flamingos. Seaworld.org. Retrieved 2013-03-30.
  60. ↑ Backstory: Extinction of an American icon?, Collins, Clayton(2 November 2006). Retrieved 9 February 2010.

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