Hebrew Bible

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The Hebrew Bible or TanakhTemplate:Efn (Template:IPAc-en;[1] Hebrew: Template:Script/Hebrew Tānāḵ), also known in Hebrew as Miqra (Template:IPAc-en; Hebrew: Template:Script/Hebrew MīqrāʾTemplate:Px2), is the canonical collection of Hebrew scriptures, including the Torah, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Different branches of Judaism and Samaritanism have maintained different versions of the canon, including the 3rd-century Septuagint text used in Second Temple Judaism, the Syriac Peshitta, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and most recently the 10th-century medieval Masoretic Text compiled by the Masoretes, currently used in Rabbinic Judaism.[2] The terms "Hebrew Bible" or "Hebrew Canon" are frequently confused with the Masoretic Text; however, this is a medieval version and one of several texts considered authoritative by different types of Judaism throughout history.[2] The current edition of the Masoretic Text is mostly in Biblical Hebrew, with a few passages in Biblical Aramaic (in the books of Daniel and Ezra, and the verse Jeremiah 10:11).[3]

The authoritative form of the modern Hebrew Bible used in Rabbinic Judaism is the Masoretic Text (7th to 10th century CE), which consists of 24 books, divided into pesuqim (verses). The Hebrew Bible developed during the Second Temple Period, as the Jews decided which religious texts were of divine origin; the Masoretic Text, compiled by the Jewish scribes and scholars of the Early Middle Ages, comprises the Hebrew and Aramaic 24 books that they considered authoritative.[2]

The Hellenized Greek-speaking Jews of Alexandria produced a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible called "the Septuagint", that included books later identified as the Apocrypha, while the Samaritans produced their own edition of the Torah, the Samaritan Pentateuch; according to the Dutch–Israeli biblical scholar and linguist Emanuel Tov, professor of Bible Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, both of these ancient editions of the Hebrew Bible differ significantly from the medieval Masoretic Text.[2]

In addition to the Masoretic Text, modern biblical scholars seeking to understand the history of the Hebrew Bible use a range of sources.[4] These include the Septuagint, the Syriac language Peshitta translation, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Dead Sea Scrolls collection, and quotations from rabbinic manuscripts. These sources may be older than the Masoretic Text in some cases and often differ from it.[5] These differences have given rise to the theory that yet another text, an Urtext of the Hebrew Bible, once existed and is the source of the versions extant today.[6] However, such an Urtext has never been found, and which of the three commonly known versions (Septuagint, Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch) is closest to the Urtext is debated.[7]

There are many similarities between the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. The Protestant Old Testament has the same books as the Hebrew Bible, but the books are arranged in different orders. The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox churches include the Deuterocanonical books, which are not included in the Hebrew Bible.[8]

Terminology

Tanakh

Template:Judaism Template:See Tanakh is an acronym, made from the first Hebrew letter of each of the Masoretic Text's three traditional divisions: Torah (literally 'Instruction' or 'Law'),[9] Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings)—hence TaNaKh.

The three-part division reflected in the acronym Tanakh is well attested in the rabbinic literature.[10] During that period, however, Tanakh was not used. Instead, the proper title was Mikra (or Miqra, מקרא, meaning reading or that which is read) because the biblical texts were read publicly. The acronym 'Tanakh' is first recorded in the medieval era.[11] Mikra continues to be used in Hebrew to this day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to the Hebrew scriptures. In modern spoken Hebrew, they are interchangeable.[12]

Hebrew Bible

Template:Bible-related Template:See also Many biblical studies scholars advocate use of the term Hebrew Bible (or Hebrew Scriptures) as a substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g. Tanakh or Old Testament).[13][14] The Society of Biblical Literature's Handbook of Style, which is the standard for major academic journals like the Harvard Theological Review and conservative Protestant journals like the Bibliotheca Sacra and the Westminster Theological Journal, suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as ... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either.[15]

"Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the Second Temple era and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day.[16] The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic (mostly in the books of Daniel and Ezra), written and printed in Aramaic square-script, which was adopted as the Hebrew alphabet after the Babylonian exile.

Biblical narrative

The heart of the biblical story is God's covenant with the nation of Israel.[17] The Tanakh begins with the Genesis creation narrative and traces Israelite origins to the patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt where their descendants live for 430 years. After the Exodus, the Israelites wander in the wilderness for 40 years.[18]

God gives the Israelites the Law of Moses to guide their behavior. The law includes rules for both religious ritual and ethics Template:Crossreference. This moral code requires justice and care for the poor, widows, and orphans. The biblical story affirms God's unconditional love for his people, but he still punishes them when they fail to live by the covenant.Template:Sfn

God leads Israel into the promised land of Canaan,Template:Sfn which they conquer after five years. For the next 470 years, the Israelites were led by judges. Afterwards, the government transitioned to a monarchy. The united Kingdom of Israel was ruled first by Saul and then by David and his son Solomon. It was Solomon who built the First Temple in Jerusalem.Template:Sfn After Solomon's death, the united kingdom split into the northern Kingdom of Israel with its capital at Samaria and the southern Kingdom of Judah centered at Jerusalem.Template:Sfn

The northern kingdom survived for 200 years until it was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 BCE. The Kingdom of Judah survived for longer, but it was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The Temple was destroyed, and many Judeans were exiled to Babylon. In 539 BCE, Babylon was conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, who allowed the exiles to return to Judah. Between 520 and 515 BCE, the Temple was rebuilt Template:Crossreference.Template:Sfn

Development and codification

File:Texts of the OT.svg
The inter-relationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Old Testament (some identified by their siglum). Mt being the Masoretic text. The lowermost text "(lost)" would be the Urtext.

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The books that make up the Hebrew Bible were composed and edited in stages over several hundred years.Template:Sfn There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty,[19] while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later.[20]

Traditionally, Moses was considered the author of the Torah, and this part of the Tanakh achieved authoritative or canonical status first, possibly as early as the 5th century BCE. This is suggested by Ezra 7:6, which describes Ezra as "a scribe skilled in the law (torah) of Moses that the Lord the God of Israel had given".[21]

The Nevi'im had gained canonical status by the 2nd century BCE. There are references to the "Law and the Prophets" in the Book of Sirach, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the New Testament. The Book of Daniel, written Template:Circa, was not grouped with the Prophets presumably because the Nevi'im collection was already fixed by this time.Template:Sfn

The Ketuvim was the last part of the Tanakh to achieve canonical status. The prologue to the Book of Sirach mentions "other writings" along with the Law and Prophets but does not specify content. The Gospel of Luke refers to "the Law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms" (Luke 24:44). These references suggest that the content of the Writings remained fluid until the canonization process was completed in the 2nd century CE.Template:Sfn

According to Louis Ginzberg's Legends of the Jews, the twenty-four book canon of the Hebrew Bible was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in the Second Temple period.[22]

According to the Talmud, much of the Tanakh was compiled by the men of the Great Assembly (Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah), a task completed in 450 BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever since.[23]

The 24-book canon is mentioned in the Midrash Koheleth 12:12: Whoever brings together in his house more than twenty four books brings confusion.[24]

Language and pronunciation

The original writing system of the Hebrew text was an abjad: consonants written with some applied vowel letters ("matres lectionis"). During the early Middle Ages, scholars known as the Masoretes created a single formalized system of vocalization. This was chiefly done by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, in the Tiberias school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name Tiberian vocalization. It also included some innovations of Ben Naftali and the Babylonian exiles.[25] Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews hold the pronunciation and cantillation to derive from the revelation at Sinai, since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses.[26] The combination of a text (Template:Lang mikra), pronunciation (Template:Lang niqqud) and cantillation (Template:Lang te`amim) enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning and the nuances in sentence flow of the text.

Number of different words used

The number of distinct words in the Hebrew Bible is 8,679, of which 1,480 are hapax legomena,[27]Template:Rp words or expressions that occur only once. The number of distinct Semitic roots, on which many of these biblical words are based, is roughly 2000.[27]Template:Rp

Books

The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books, counting as one book each 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel, 1 Kings and 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles, and Ezra–Nehemiah. The Twelve Minor Prophets (Template:Lang) are also counted as a single book. In Hebrew, the books are often referred to by their prominent first words.

Torah

Template:Main The Torah (Template:Lang, literally "teaching") is also known as the "Pentateuch", or as the "Five Books of Moses". Printed versions (rather than scrolls) of the Torah are often called Template:Lang (Template:Lang "Five fifth-sections of the Torah") and informally as Template:Lang.

Nevi'im

Template:Main Nevi'im (Template:Lang Template:Lang, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. This division includes the books which cover the time from the entrance of the Israelites into the Land of Israel until the Babylonian captivity of Judah (the "period of prophecy"). Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive.

The Former Prophets (Template:Lang Template:Lang)

The Latter Prophets (Template:Lang Template:Lang)

The Twelve Minor Prophets (Template:Lang, Template:Lang, "The Twelve"), which are considered one book:

Ketuvim

Template:Main Template:Lang (Template:Lang, "Writings") consists of eleven books.

Poetic books

Template:See In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Template:Lang (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, Template:Lang yields Template:Lang Template:Lang, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").

These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.

Five scrolls

Template:See The five relatively short books of the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther are collectively known as the Template:Lang (Five Megillot).

In many Jewish communities, these books are read aloud in the synagogue on particular occasions, the occasion listed below in parenthesis.

Other books

Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics.

  • Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e. the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).
  • The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.
  • Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic.

Book order

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Talmud gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.[29] This order is roughly chronological (assuming traditional authorship).

In Tiberian Masoretic codices (including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex), and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.[30] This order is more thematic (e.g. the megillot are listed together).

Number of books

Template:See also The Hebrew Bible is generally considered to consist of 24 books, but this number is somewhat arbitrary, as (for example) it regards 12 separate books of minor prophets as a single book.[31] The traditional rabbinic count of 24 books appears in the Talmud[29] and numerous works of midrash.[32] In several early nonrabbinic sources, the number of books given is 22.[33] This number corresponds to the letters of the Hebrew alphabet; according to Athanasius there were 27 books, corresponding to the alphabet with final letter forms (sofiot).

The count of 24 was said to be equal to the number of priestly divisions.[34] According to a modern source, the number of books may be related to the division of the Iliad and Odyssey into 24 books, corresponding to the letters of the Greek alphabet. Both the Bible and Homer formed "foundational literature" of their respective cultures, studied by children and considered distillations of the society's values. The division of the Bible into 22 books may be a conversion of the Greek system to the Hebrew alphabet, while the division into 24 may be an adoption of the "perfect" number 24 as befitting the Bible's stature in Jewish eyes.[31]

Nach

Nach, also anglicized Template:Visible anchor, refers to the Nevi'im and Ketuvim portions of Tanakh.[35][36] Nach is often referred to as its own subject,[37] separate from Torah.[38]

It is a major subject in the curriculum of Orthodox high schools for girls and in the seminaries which they subsequently attend,[35] and is often taught by different teachers than those who teach Chumash.[37] The curriculum of Orthodox high schools for boys includes only some portions of Nach, such as the book of Joshua, the book of Judges,[39] and the Five Megillot.[40] See Template:Slink.

Translations

Template:Further

Jewish commentaries

Template:Main

File:Tanach.jpg
Hebrew bible (Tanakh) in the collection of the Jewish Museum of Switzerland, printed in Israel in 1962.

The major commentary used for the Chumash is the Rashi commentary. The Rashi commentary and Metzudot commentary are the major commentaries for the Nach.[41][42]

There are two major approaches to the study of, and commentary on, the Tanakh. In the Jewish community, the classical approach is a religious study of the Bible, where it is assumed that the Bible is divinely inspired.[43] Another approach is to study the Bible as a human creation.[44] In this approach, Biblical studies can be considered as a sub-field of religious studies. The latter practice, when applied to the Torah, is considered heresy[45] by the Orthodox Jewish community.[46] As such, much modern day Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox authors is considered forbidden[47] by rabbis teaching in Orthodox yeshivas. Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, Gersonides, and Maimonides, used many elements of contemporary biblical criticism, including their knowledge of history, science, and philology. Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered acceptable by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.

The Modern Orthodox Jewish community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the academic world,[48] e.g. the Da'at Miqra series. Non-Orthodox Jews, including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept both traditional and secular approaches to Bible studies. "Jewish commentaries on the Bible", discusses Jewish Tanakh commentaries from the Targums to classical rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern-day commentaries.

Influence on Christianity

Template:Main Christianity has long asserted a close relationship between the Hebrew Bible and New Testament.[49] In Protestant Bibles, the Old Testament is the same as the Hebrew Bible, but the books are arranged differently. Catholic Bibles and Eastern Orthodox Bibles contain books not included in the Hebrew Bible Template:Crossreference.Template:Sfn

The ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible currently used by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches are based on the Septuagint, which was considered the authoritative scriptural canon by the early Christians.[50] The Septuagint was influential on early Christianity as it was the Hellenistic Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible primarily used by the 1st-century Christian authors.[51]

See also

References

Footnotes

Template:Notelist

Sources
  1. ↑ "Tanach" Template:Webarchive. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 The Text of the Hebrew Bible: From the Rabbis to the Masoretes{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht(2014). ISBN 978-3-525-55064-9
  3. ↑ Template:Bibleverse
  4. ↑ Scholars seek Hebrew Bible's original text – but was there one?. Jewish Telegraphic Agency(2014-05-13). Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  5. ↑ Controversy lurks as scholars try to work out Bible's original text. The Times of Israel. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  6. ↑ Isaac Leo Seeligmann, Robert Hanhart, Hermann Spieckermann: The Septuagint Version of Isaiah and Cognate Studies, Tübingen 2004, pp. 33–34.
  7. ↑ Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Random House(1992). ISBN 978-0679414483
  8. ↑ Reconsidering the Roman Catholic Apocrypha. Classical Conversations({Template:Date).
  9. ↑ Template:Cite dictionary
  10. ↑ Mikra'ot Gedolot. people.ucalgary.ca. Retrieved 2022-09-09.
  11. ↑ It appears in the masorah magna of the Biblical text, and in the responsa of the Rashba (5:119); see Research Query: Tanakh/תנ״ך Template:Webarchive
  12. ↑ Biblical Studies Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading, and Interpretation. Norton Irish Theological Quarterly. 2007; 72: 305–306
  13. ↑ The New Old Testament. The New York Times(1997-05-25). Retrieved 2019-12-06..
  14. ↑ From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible: Jews, Christians and the Word of God, Hamilton, Mark. PBS. Retrieved 2007-11-19.
  15. ↑ The SBL Handbook of Style{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Hendrickson(1999). ISBN 978-1-56563-487-9 See Society of Biblical Literature: Questions Regarding Digital Editions Template:Webarchive
  16. ↑ Scanning an Ancient Biblical Text That Humans Fear to Open. The New York Times(January 5, 2018). Retrieved June 14, 2019.
  17. ↑ A History of Judaism{{#if:Goodman|, Goodman}. Penguin Books(2017). ISBN 978-1-846-14155-3
  18. ↑ Introduction to the Hebrew Bible{{#if:Collins|, Collins}. Fortress Press(2018). ISBN 978-1-5064-4598-4
  19. ↑ The Canon Debate{{#if:Davies|, Davies}. Baker Academic(2001). ISBN 978-1-4412-4163-4
  20. ↑ McDonald & Sanders, The Canon Debate, 2002, p. 5, cited are Neusner's Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine, pp. 128–145, and Midrash in Context: Exegesis in Formative Judaism, pp. 1–22.
  21. ↑ The Old Testament: A Historical and Literary Introduction to the Hebrew Scriptures{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2018). ISBN 978-0190608651
  22. ↑ Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews Vol. IV : Chapter XI Ezra Template:Webarchive (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.
  23. ↑ (Bava Batra 14b–15a, Rashi to Megillah 3a, 14a)
  24. ↑ Midrash Qoheleth 12:12
  25. ↑ The Masorah of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia: Introduction and Annotated Glossary{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}(1998). ISBN 978-0802843630
  26. ↑ A Dissertation Concerning the Antiquity of the Hebrew Language: Letters, Vowel-points, and Accents{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. G. Keith(1767) also pp. 250–255
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2020). ISBN 978-0199812790
  28. ↑ Also called Template:Lang in Hebrew.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Babylonian Talmud, Bava Batra 14b
  30. ↑ An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek{{#if:Swete|, Swete}. Macmillan and Co.(1902)
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Darshan, G. "The Twenty-Four Books of the Hebrew Bible and Alexandrian Scribal Methods,", in: M.R. Niehoff (ed.), Homer and the Bible in the Eyes of Ancient Interpreters: Between Literary and Religious Concerns (JSRC 16), Leiden: Brill 2012, pp. 221–44
  32. ↑ Exodus Rabbah 41:5; Numbers Rabbah 13:15, 14:4, 14:18, 15:22, 18:21; Song of Songs Rabbah 4:11; Ecclesiastes Rabbah 12:11, 12:12; Tanhuma Ki Tisa 16:2, Korach 12:1, Vayelech 1:1; Pesikta Rabbati 3:1; Lekach Tov, Genesis 49:8; Kallah Rabbati 10:14, etc.
  33. ↑ Josephus, Against Apion, 1:8; also 2 Esdras 12:45, Origen
  34. ↑ התנ"ך שלנו
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Guide to Israel Schools (Tiferet). Yeshiva University. Retrieved 2020-06-19.
  36. ↑ Template:Cite magazine
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Tova .. our new ... Retrieved 2020-06-19.
  38. ↑ The Living Nach{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}(1995). ISBN 978-1885-22007-3
  39. ↑ covered in or before 8th grade (so it's a review)
  40. ↑ Esther, Rus, Shir HaShirim, Eicha and KoHeles: these are read aloud in synagogue, each at a particular point in the yearly Holiday cycle.
  41. ↑ Mishlei{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Shai LaMora "Eshkol"
  42. ↑ NACH – Shai LaMorah – All Volumes. Retrieved 2020-06-19.
  43. ↑ Irreconcilable Differences in Bible's Interpretations. The New York Times(September 15, 2007). Retrieved June 21, 2020.
  44. ↑ New Torah For Modern Minds. The New York Times(March 9, 2002). Retrieved June 21, 2020.
  45. ↑ Reading Is Believing, or Not. The New York Times(September 16, 2007). Retrieved June 21, 2020.
  46. ↑ American Jews Rediscover Orthodoxy. The New York Times(September 30, 1984). Retrieved June 21, 2020.
  47. ↑ The Bible's Inspired Art. The New York Times(October 3, 1982). Retrieved June 22, 2020.
  48. ↑ Rabbi Hayyim Angel's 13th Book Is Compilation of Tanach-Related Topics. Jewish Link NJ(January 11, 2018). Retrieved June 21, 2020.
  49. ↑ McGrath, Alister, Christian Theology, Oxford: Blackwell, 2011, pp. 120, 123. Template:ISBN.
  50. ↑ Hebrew Bible, Greek Bible, and Quran{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Mohr Siebeck(2008). ISBN 978-3-16-151454-8
  51. ↑ Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Penguin Books(2010). ISBN 978-1-101-18999-3

Further reading

  • A History of the Jews{{#if:Johnson|, Johnson}. Weidenfeld and Nicolson(1987). ISBN 978-0-297-79091-4
  • Kuntz, John Kenneth. The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought, Harper and Row, 1974. Template:ISBN.
  • Leiman, Sid. The Canonization of Hebrew Scripture (Hamden, CT: Archon, 1976).
  • Levenson, Jon. Sinai and Zion: An Entry into the Jewish Bible (San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1985).
  • Searching for the Better Text, Minkoff, Harvey. Biblical Archaeology Review (online). Retrieved 9 June 2011.
  • Noth, Martin. A History of Pentateuchal Traditions (1948; trans. by Bernhard Anderson; Atlanta: Scholars, 1981).
  • Schmid, Konrad. The Old Testament: A Literary History (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2012).

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