Hindu texts

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Hindu texts are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few of these texts are shared across these traditions and they are broadly considered Hindu scriptures.[1][2] These include the Puranas, Itihasa and Vedas. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scriptures" given the diverse nature of Hinduism,[2][3] but many list the Bhagavad Gita and the Agamas as Hindu scriptures,[2][3][4] and Dominic Goodall includes Bhagavata Purana and Yajnavalkya Smriti in the list of Hindu scriptures as well.[2]

History

There are two historic classifications of Hindu texts: Shruti – that which is heard,[5] and Smriti – that which is remembered.[6] The Shruti refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts, believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages (rishis). These comprise the central canon of Hinduism.[5][7] It includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts - the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads.[8] Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[9][10]

The Smriti texts are a specific body of Hindu texts attributed to an author,[8] as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than Shruti in Hinduism.[6] The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedāngas, the Hindu epics, the Sutras and Shastras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, the Puranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, the Bhasyas, and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.[11][12]

Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, many others in regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in non-Indian languages.[2] Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennia before they were written down into manuscripts.[13][14] This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.[13][14]

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Vedas

Template:Main Template:Multiple image The Vedas are a large body of Hindu texts originating in Vedic period in northern India, the Rig Veda being composed ca. 1200 BCE, and its Samhita and Brahmanas complete before about 800 BCE.[15] Composed in Vedic Sanskrit hymns, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[16][17][18] Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[19] and "impersonal, authorless".[20][21][22] The knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither authored by human nor by divine source, but seen, heard and transmitted by sages.[7]

Vedas are also called Template:IAST ("what is heard") literature,[23] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called Template:IAST ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the Deity.[24] In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.[25]

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.[26][27] Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[26][28][29]

Upanishads

Template:Main The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.[9]Template:Refn

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[30] The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads,Template:Sfn[31] and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[31] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[10][32] Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[9][10]

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads.[33][34] The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and AranyakasTemplate:Sfn and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),[35] down to the Maurya period.Template:Sfn Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through medieval Hinduism. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Smriti

The texts that appeared afterwards were called smriti. Smriti is a literature which includes various Shastras and Itihasas (epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata), Harivamsa Puranas, Agamas and Darshanas.

The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to later half of the 1st millennium BCE. The Dharma-shastras (law books), derivatives of the Dharma-sutras. Other examples were bhautikashastra "physics", rasayanashastra "chemistry", jīvashastra "biology", vastushastra "architectural science", shilpashastra "science of sculpture", arthashastra "economics" and nītishastra "political science".[36] It also includes Tantras and Agama literature.[37]

File:Bhagavad Gita, a 19th century manuscript.jpg
A 19th century manuscript of the Hindu text Bhagavad Gita

This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[38][39]

Puranas

Template:Main The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly legends and other traditional lore.[40] Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,[41][42] several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva and Goddess Devi.[43][44]

The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[45] and it includes diverse topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.[40][42][43] The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.[41]

There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas),[46] with over 400,000 verses.[40] The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,[46] but are considered a Smriti.[47] These Hindu texts have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.[48] The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.[49][50]

Other Hindu texts

Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows:

Field Reviewer Reference
Agriculture and food Gyula Wojtilla [51]
Architecture P Acharya,
B Dagens		 [52][53]
Devotionalism Karen Pechelis [54]
Drama, dance and performance arts AB Keith,
Rachel Baumer and James Brandon,
Mohan Khokar		 [55][56][57]
Education, school system Hartmut Scharfe [58]
Epics John Brockington [59]
Gnomic and didactic literature Ludwik Sternbach [60]
Grammar Hartmut Scharfe [61]
Law and jurisprudence J Duncan M Derrett [62]
Lexicography Claus Vogel [63]
Mathematics and exact sciences Kim Plofker
David Pingree		 [64][65]
Medicine MS Valiathan,
Kenneth Zysk		 [66][67]
Music Emmie te Nijenhuis,
Lewis Rowell		 [68][69]
Mythology Ludo Rocher [70]
Philosophy Karl Potter [71]
Poetics Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard [72]
Gender and Sex Johann Jakob Meyer [73]
State craft, politics Patrick Olivelle [74]
Tantrism, Agamas Teun Goudriaan [75]
Temples, Sculpture Stella Kramrisch [76]
Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads) Jan Gonda [77]

Historical significance

The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and sciences forms in India such as music, dance, sculptures, architecture, astronomy, science, mathematics, medicine and wellness. Valmiki's Ramayana (500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing by Gandharvas, dance by Apsaras such as Urvashi, Rambha, Menaka, Tilottama Panchāpsaras, and by Ravana's wives who excelling in nrityageeta or "singing and dancing" and nritavaditra or "playing musical instruments").[78] The evidence of earliest dance related texts are in Natasutras, which are mentioned in the text of Panini, the sage who wrote the classic on Sanskrit grammar, and who is dated to about 500 BCE.[79]Template:Sfn This performance arts related Sutra text is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin (IAST: Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.[79]Template:Sfn Richmond et al. estimate the Natasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.Template:Sfn[79]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Frazier, Jessica (2011), The Continuum companion to Hindu studies, London: Continuum, Template:ISBN, pages 1–15
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, Template:ISBN, page ix-xliii
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 46–52, 76–77
  4. ↑ RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, Template:ISBN, pages 1–11 and Preface
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. Template:ISBN, page 645
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, page 656–657
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable Religion in Central India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. State University of New York Press(2002). ISBN 978-0-7914-5386-5
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 2–3
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Template:Cite q.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, Template:ISBN, pages 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
  11. ↑ Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103–130
  12. ↑ Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, Template:ISBN, pages 16–18
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Michael Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Template:ISBN, pages 68–71
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 67–77
  15. ↑ An Introduction to Hinduism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(1996). ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0
  16. ↑ see e.g. Template:Harvnb; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
  17. ↑ see e.g. Template:Harvnb; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Template:IAST", in: Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
  18. ↑ Sanujit Ghose (2011). "Religious Developments in Ancient India" in Ancient History Encyclopedia.
  19. ↑ Vaman Shivaram Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary, see apauruSeya
  20. ↑ D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, pages 196–197
  21. ↑ Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 290
  22. ↑ Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, Template:ISBN, page 128
  23. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  24. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  25. ↑ Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pages 85–86
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 35–39
  27. ↑ Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
  28. ↑ A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, Template:ISBN, pages 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 285
  29. ↑ Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  30. ↑ Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 35–36
  32. ↑ Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";
    Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, Template:ISBN, pages 208–210
  33. ↑ Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, Chapter 1
  34. ↑ E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, Template:ISBN, pages 298–299
  35. ↑ Template:Cite q
  36. ↑ Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  37. ↑ Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, pages 7–14
  38. ↑ Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 2–5
  39. ↑ Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 437–439
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 185–204
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, Template:ISBN, page 139
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, pages 1–5, 12–21
  44. ↑ Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice{{#if:Nair|, Nair}. Hindology Books(2008). ISBN 978-81-223-1020-7
  45. ↑ Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, Template:ISBN, page 915
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, Template:ISBN, page xii, 4
  47. ↑ Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, Template:ISBN, page 503
  48. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, pages 12–13, 134–156, 203–210
  49. ↑ Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, Template:ISBN, page xli
  50. ↑ The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe{{#if:Thompson|, Thompson}. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers(2007). ISBN 978-81-208-1919-1
  51. ↑ Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  52. ↑ PK Acharya (1946), An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture, Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6
  53. ↑ Bruno Dagens (1995), MAYAMATA : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography, Template:ISBN
  54. ↑ Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN
  55. ↑ The Sanskrit Drama, Oxford University Press
  56. ↑ Rachel Baumer and James Brandon (1993), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN
  57. ↑ Mohan Khokar (1981), Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, Peter Owen Publishers, Template:ISBN
  58. ↑ Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, BRILL, Template:ISBN
  59. ↑ John Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, BRILL, Template:ISBN
  60. ↑ Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  61. ↑ Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  62. ↑ J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  63. ↑ Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  64. ↑ Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN
  65. ↑ David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society, Template:ISBN
  66. ↑ MS Valiathan, The Legacy of Caraka, Orient Blackswan, Template:ISBN
  67. ↑ Kenneth Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN
  68. ↑ Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature ; v. 6 : Scientific and technical literature ; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  69. ↑ Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, Template:ISBN
  70. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  71. ↑ Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN
  72. ↑ Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  73. ↑ JJ Meyer, Sexual Life in Ancient India, Vol 1 and 2, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN
  74. ↑ Patrick Olivelle, King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN
  75. ↑ Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  76. ↑ Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN
  77. ↑ Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN
  78. ↑ Ananda W. P. Guruge, 1991, The Society of the Ramayana, Page 180-200.
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(1994). ISBN 978-81-208-1234-5

References

Bibliography

  • The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary{{#if:Apte|, Apte}. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers(1965). ISBN 81-208-0567-4
  • Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(1997). ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7
  • [{{{url}}} Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā]. SUNY Press.
  • The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change{{#if:Collins|, Collins}. Harvard University Press(2000). ISBN 0-674-00187-7
  • [{{{url}}} History of Philosophy Eastern and Western]. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
  • A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary{{#if:MacDonell|, MacDonell}. Motilal Banarsidass(2004). ISBN 978-81-208-2000-5
  • The Samnyasa Upanisads{{#if:Olivelle|, Olivelle}. Oxford University Press(1992). ISBN 978-0-19-507045-3
  • [{{{url}}} Upaniṣads]. Oxford University Press.
  • A Source Book in Indian Philosophy{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Princeton University Press(1957). ISBN 978-0-691-01958-1
  • [{{{url}}} A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy]. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
  • India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors.

Further reading

  • R.C. Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, Template:ISBN
  • Dominic Goodall, Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, Template:ISBN
  • Jessica Frazier (2014), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu studies, Bloomsbury Academic, Template:ISBN

Manuscripts collections (incomplete)

Online resources:

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