History of Hindustani

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About: the history and evolution of the Hindustani language

For other uses, see Indian people.

the history of the Hindustani culture


Hindustani (Hindi: हिंदुस्तानी, Urdu: Template:Nastaliq) is one of the predominant languages of South Asia, with federal status in India and Pakistan in its standardized forms of Hindi and Urdu. It is widely spoken and understood as a second language in Nepal, Bangladesh, and the Persian Gulf and as such is considered a lingua franca in the Indian subcontinent.[1] It is also one of the most widely spoken languages in the world by total number of speakers.[2] It developed in north India, principally during the Mughal Empire, when the Persian language exerted a strong influence on the Western Hindi languages of central India; this contact between the Hindu and Muslim cultures resulted in the core Indo-Aryan vocabulary of the Indian dialect of Hindi spoken in Delhi, whose earliest form is known as Old Hindi, being enriched with Persian loanwords.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] Rekhta, or "mixed" speech, which came to be known as Hindustani, Hindi, Hindavi, and Urdu (derived from Zabaan-i-Ordu by Mashafi meaning "language of the Horde".), also locally known as Lashkari or Lashkari Zaban in long form[11][12]Template:Full citation needed, was thus created.[13] This form was elevated to the status of a literary language, and after the partition of colonial India and independence this collection of dialects became the basis for modern standard Hindi and Urdu. Although these official languages are distinct registers with regards to their formal aspects, such as modern technical vocabulary, they continue to be all but indistinguishable in their vernacular forms.

Formation

Most of the grammar and basic vocabulary of Hindustani descends directly from the medieval Indo-Aryan language of central India, known as Śauraseni.[14] After the tenth century, several Śauraseni dialects were elevated to literary languages, including Braj Bhasha, Awadhi and the Khari Boli of Delhi.

During the reigns of the Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire in India, where Persian was adopted as the official language and Delhi was established as the capital, the imperial court and concomitant immigration infused the Indo-Aryan dialect of Hindi spoken in Delhi (the earliest form is known as Old Hindi) with large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Chagatai words from the court; this occurred as a result of cultural contact between Hindus and Muslims in Hindustan and became the fruit of a composite Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb.[3][4][15][9][16][17] The introduced words were primarily nouns and were employed for cultural, legal and political concepts. These Persian and Arabic loanwords form 25% of Urdu's vocabulary.[10][18] As a form of Hindustani and a member of the Western Hindi category of Indo-Aryan languages,[17] 75% of Urdu words have their etymological roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit,[10][19][20] and approximately 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit.[18][21]

The new court language developed simultaneously in Delhi and Lucknow, the latter of which is in an Awadhi-speaking area; and thus, modern Hindustani has a noticeable Awadhi influence even though it is primarily based on Delhi dialect. In these cities, the language continued to be called "Hindi" as well as "Urdu".[22][16] While Urdu retained the grammar and core vocabulary of the local Hindi dialect, it adopted the Nastaleeq writing system from Persian.[16][23]

The term Hindustani is derived from Hindustan, the Persian-origin name for the northwestern Indian subcontinent. The works of the 13th century scholar Amir Khusro are typical of the Hindustani language of the time:

<poem>

सेज वो सूनी देख के रोवुँ मैं दिन रैन ।
पिया पिया मैं करत हूँ पहरों, पल भर सुख ना चैन ॥
.سیج وو سونی دیکھ کے رووں میں دن رہیں
.پیا پیا میں کرت ہوں پہروں، پل بھر سکھ نہ چین
sej vo sūnī dekh ke rovũ ma͠i din rain,
piyā piyā ma͠i karat hū̃ pahrõ, pal bhar sukh nā cain.
Seeing the empty bed I cry day and night
Calling for my beloved all day, not a moment of happiness or peace.

</poem>

The language went by several names over the years: Hindavi ("of Hindus or Indians"), Dahlavi ("of Delhi"), Hindustani ("of Hindustan") and Hindi ("Indian").[13] The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan built a new walled city in Delhi in 1639 that came to be known as Shahjahanabad. The market close to the royal fort (the Red Fort) was called Urdu Bazar ("Army/camp Market", from the Turkic word ordu, "army"), and it may be from this that the phrase Zaban-e-Urdu ("the language of the army/camp") derives. This was shortened to Urdu around the year 1800. The Mughal term Ordu with the local equivalent Lashkari[24] or "camp language" (cognate with the English word, "horde"), was used to describe the common language of the Mughal army. The language spread from the interaction of Persian-speaking Muslim soldiers to the local people who spoke varieties of Hindi. Soon, the Persian script in the cursive Nasta'liq form was adopted, with additional letters to accommodate the Indian phonetic system. Large number of Persian words were adopted in Hindustani, as were even grammatical elements such as the enclitic ezāfe.[10][25]

The official language of the Ghurids, Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, and their successor states, as well as their language of poetry and literature, was Persian, while the official language of religion was Arabic. Most of the sultans and the nobility of the sultanate period were Turkic peoples from Central Asia who spoke Chagatai as their mother tongue. The Mughals were also Chagatai, but later adopted Persian. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the Indian subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.[26] Muzaffar Alam asserts that Persian became the lingua franca of the empire under Akbar for various political and social factors due to its non-sectarian and fluid nature.[27] However, the armies, merchants, preachers, Sufis, and later the court, also incorporated the local people and elements of the medieval Hindu literary language, Braj Bhasha. This new contact language soon incorporated other dialects, such as Haryanvi, Panjabi, and in the 17th century the dialect of the new capital at Delhi. By 1800, Delhi dialect had become the dominant base of the language.[28]

When Wali Mohammed Wali arrived in Delhi, he established Hindustani with a light smattering of Persian words, a register called Rekhta, for poetry; previously the language of poetry had been Persian. When the Delhi Sultanate expanded south to the Deccan Plateau, they carried their literary language with them, and it was influenced there by more southerly languages, producing the Dakhini dialect. During this time Hindustani was the language of both Hindus and Muslims. The non-communal nature of the language lasted until the British Raj in India, when in 1837 Hindustani in the Persian script (i.e. Urdu) replaced Persian as the official language and was made co-official along with English. This triggered a Hindu backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. This literary standard, called simply Hindi, replaced Urdu as the official register of Bihar in 1881, establishing a sectarian divide of "Urdu" for Muslims and "Hindi" for Hindus, a divide that was formalized with the independence of India and Pakistan after the withdrawal of the British.[29]

Poetry

The poet Wali Deccani (1667–1707) visited Delhi in 1700.[30] His Rekhta or Hindavi ghazals established Hindustani as a medium of poetic expression in the imperial city. Hindustani soon gained distinction as the preferred language in courts of India and eventually replaced Persian among the nobles. To this day, Rekhta retains an important place in literary and cultural spheres. Many distinctly Persian forms of literature, such as ghazals and nazms, came to both influence and be affected by Indian culture, producing a distinct melding of Middle Eastern and South Asian heritages. A famous cross-over writer was Amir Khusro, whose Persian and Hindavi couplets are read to this day in the subcontinent. Persian has sometimes been termed an adopted classical language of South Asia alongside Sanskrit due to this role.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Jammu and Kashmir Burushaski: Language, Language contact and change. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  2. ↑ Hindustani. encyclopedia.com.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture - Rekhta Foundation. Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Urdu Literary Culture: Vernacular Modernity in the Writing of Muhammad Hasan Askari{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Springer(2012). ISBN 978-1-137-02692-7
  5. ↑ The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. University of Wisconsin–Madison(2000)
  6. ↑ Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Tata Institute of Social Sciences(1943)
  7. ↑ The Indo-Aryan Languages{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2007). ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9
  8. ↑ The Culture of India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rosen Publishing(2010). ISBN 978-1-61530-149-2
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Morphology and Syntax of Old Hindī: Edition and Analysis of One Hundred Kabīr vānī Poems from Rājasthān{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Brill Academic Publishers(2013). ISBN 978-90-04-25489-3
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia{{#if:Ahmad|, Ahmad}. Verso(2002). ISBN 9781859843581
  11. ↑ Dar, Kamran Shaukat, Ahmad Bin Shafat, and Muhammad Umair Hassan. "An efficient stop word elimination algorithm for Urdu language." 2017 14th International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and Information Technology (ECTI-CON). IEEE, 2017.
  12. ↑ Khalid, Kanwal. "LAHORE DURING THE GHANAVID PERIOD."
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900-1920{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. University of California, Berkeley(2008)
  14. ↑ Introduction to Prakrit{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(1999). ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9
  15. ↑ History Of Printing And Publishing In India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. National Book Trust, India(1997). ISBN 978-81-237-2120-0
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 About Hindi-Urdu. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill(1997). Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Brill Academic Publishers(1993). ISBN 9789004097964
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 India Perspectives, Volume 8{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. PTI for the Ministry of External Affairs(1995)
  19. ↑ Hindu Pasts: Women, Religion, Histories{{#if:Dalmia|, Dalmia}. SUNY Press(31 July 2017). ISBN 9781438468075
  20. ↑ About Hindi-Urdu, Taj, Afroz. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
  21. ↑ Urdu's origin: it's not a "camp language"(17 December 2011). Retrieved 5 July 2015.
  22. ↑ From Hindi to Urdu: A Social and Political History{{#if:Rahman|, Rahman}. Oxford University Press(2001). ISBN 978-0-19-906313-0
  23. ↑ Hindi, Urdu & Bengali{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Lonely Planet(2005)
  24. ↑ Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Concept Publishing Company, 2009(2009). ISBN 978-8180695681
  25. ↑ The Handbook of Bilingualism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. John Wiley and Sons(2006). ISBN 9780631227359
  26. ↑ Sigfried J. de Laet. History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century UNESCO, 1994. Template:ISBN p 734
  27. ↑ Alam, Muzaffar. "The Pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics." In Modern Asian Studies, vol. 32, no. 2. (May, 1998), pp. 317–349.
  28. ↑ H. Dua, 2006, "Urdu", in the Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edition.
  29. ↑ Bihar Tourism: Retrospect and Prospect{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Concept Publishing Company(2012). ISBN 978-8-180-69799-9
  30. ↑ Pain and Grace: A Study of Two Mystical Writers of Eighteenth-century Muslim India, By Annemarie Schimmel, BRILL, 1976

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