Template:Infobox language
Template:Contains special characters
Lepcha, also called Róng (Lepcha: Template:Lang; Róng ríng), is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Lepcha people in Sikkim, India and parts of West Bengal, Nepal, and Bhutan.
Population
Lepcha is spoken by minorities in the Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal, as well as parts of Nepal and Bhutan. Where it is spoken, it is considered to be an aboriginal language, pre-dating the arrival of the Tibetan languages (Sikkimese, Dzongkha, and others) and more recent Nepali language. Lepcha speakers comprise four distinct communities: the Renjóngmú of Sikkim; the Támsángmú of Kalimpong, Kurseong, and Mirik; the ʔilámmú of Ilam District, Nepal; and the Promú of southwestern Bhutan. Lepcha-speaking groups in India are larger than those in Nepal and Bhutan.[1][2]
The Indian census reported 50,000 Lepcha speakers,[3] however the number of native Lepcha speakers in India may be closer to 30,000.[1]
Endangerment
Since the 1650s, Lepcha has been an endangered language due to the encroachment of Lepcha spheres of life by Tibetan and later Nepali. By 1951, 72% of Lepchas were bilingual in Lepcha and Nepali, the latter of which had become the lingua franca of the community. No monolingual Lepcha speakers were recorded, and 20% of Lepchas could only speak Nepali. Transmission of Lepcha to younger generations has been hindered by primary schools teaching exclusively in Nepali, leading to Lepcha only being learned later in life.[4]
Marriages into Nepali-speaking families, central government promotion of Hindi and an increasing interest in English among the younger generations have also been cited as significant pressures against Lepcha.[5]
Classification
Lepcha is difficult to classify, but George van Driem (2001) suggests that it may be closest to the Mahakiranti languages, a subfamily of the Himalayish languages.[6]
Lepcha is internally diverse, showing lexical influences from different majority language groups across the four main Lepcha communities. According to Plaisier (2007), these Nepali and Sikkimese Tibetan influences do not amount to a dialectal difference.[1]
Roger Blench (2013) suggests that Lepcha has an Austroasiatic substratum, which originated from a now-extinct branch of Austroasiatic that he calls "Rongic".[7]
Features
Lepcha is a non-tonal Sino-Tibetan language, although it does have phonemic stress or pitch that may be marked in the Lepcha script.[1]Template:Rp Much of its lexicon is composed of monosyllabic elements.[2]
Notably, words that are commonly considered obscene or taboo in other languages are not treated as such by native speakers.[2]
Script and romanization
Template:Main The Lepcha script is a syllabic script featuring a variety of special marks and ligatures. Its genealogy is unclear. Early Lepcha manuscripts were written vertically, a sign of Chinese influence.[8] Prior to the development of the Lepcha script, Lepcha literary works were composed in the Tibetan script.[2]
Lepcha language is romanized according to varying schemes, the prevailing system being that of Mainwaring (1876). Most linguists, including Plaisier (2007), whose system is used in this article, have followed modified versions of Mainwaring's system. Other linguists and historians have used systems based on European languages such as English, French, and German.[1]
Phonology
Consonants
Lepcha consonants appear in the chart below, following Plaisier (2007):[1]Template:Rp
Retroflex phonemes /ʈ/, /ʈʰ/, and /ɖ/ are written in Lepcha script as Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, and Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, respectively. Most, though not all, instances of retroflex consonants indicate a word is of Tibetan origin. To distinguish this retroflex sound in Lepcha script, a dot may be written underneath: Template:Lang, Template:Lang, and Template:Lang. Native instances of non-retroflex Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, and Template:Lang Template:Transliteration may either be pronounced as written or as Template:Angbr, Template:Angbr, and Template:Angbr. For example, Template:Transliteration, Template:Gloss, may be said either Template:IPA or Template:IPA.[1]
Lepcha has three glide consonants that may occur after certain initial consonants: Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA. When the phoneme Template:IPA operates as a glide, it can combine with Template:IPA as a double-glide: Template:Lang Template:Transliteration, Template:Gloss. Notably, syllables with the glide Template:IPA are given their own independent forms in the Lepcha script.[1]
Velar consonants Template:IPA and Template:IPA preceding front vowels Template:IPA or Template:IPA are palatalized as Template:IPA and Template:IPA, respectively. Fricatives Template:IPA and Template:IPA are merged before Template:IPA.[1]
Lepcha speakers tend not to distinguish between Template:IPA and Template:IPA, pronouncing both as Template:IPA~Template:IPA~Template:IPA. Additionally, initial Template:IPA is occasionally realized as Template:IPA. Under the influence of Nepali, some Lepcha speakers have lost the distinction between Template:IPA and Template:IPA, and between Template:IPA and Template:IPA.[1]
Of the above phonemes, only Template:IPA, and Template:IPA may be syllable-final. Native speakers tend to neutralize the difference between final Template:IPA and Template:IPA. In syllable-final position, stops are realized as an unreleased stop, usually pronounced with a simultaneous Template:IPA: for example, Template:IPA becomes Template:IPA.[1]
Vowels
According to Plaisier (2007), Lepcha has eight vowels:[1]Template:Rp
The phoneme denoted by Template:Angbr is shortened and appears in closed syllables; Template:Angbr is longer and appears in open syllables. The phoneme /e/ is realized as Template:IPA in open syllables and in closed syllables before Template:IPA or Template:IPA. Closed syllables ending in Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and Template:IPA show free variation between Template:IPA, Template:IPA, and even Template:IPA. Distinctions between Template:IPA and Template:IPA are often lost among non-literate speakers, particularly those highly fluent in Nepali language, which does not contrast the sounds.[1]
Grammar
Lepcha grammar features nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. Word order is typically subject–object–verb (SOV). Lepcha morphology is somewhat agglutinative, though most bare Lepcha lexicon is made up of one- or two-syllable words. Nouns are arranged into either head-first or head-last noun phrases. Relative clauses and genitive phrases precede nouns, whereas markers for demonstratives, definiteness, number, case, and other particles follow the noun. Lepcha is an ergative language, where the ergative case indicates transitivity and completedness of the event. There is no grammatical agreement between different parts of speech (i.e. verb conjugation). Adjectives follow nouns they modify, function as predicates, or stand independently as nominal heads. Adverbs generally directly precede verbs, and reduplication is generally productive for adverbs of time (e.g. Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss → Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss).[1]
Syntax
Some basics of Lepcha syntax are outlined in Mainwaring (1876).[9]Template:Rp
The basic word order in Lepcha is subject–object–verb. Adjectives follow the noun they modify.
Possessors precede the nouns they possess.
Nouns
According to Plaisier (2007), Lepcha has only two true "cases" that modify the noun morphologically: the definite article Template:Transliteration and the dative case marker Template:Transliteration. All other noun markers, including for example the genitive marker, are actually invariable postpositions. A series noun markers may follow a single noun. Together, these cases and postpositions are:[1]
| Postposition | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Template:Lang Template:Transliteration | human plural |
| Template:Lang Template:Transliteration | non-human plural |
| Template:Lang Template:Transliteration | definite, topic |
| Template:Lang/Template:Lang Template:Transliteration/Template:Transliteration | ergative, ablative |
| Template:Lang Template:Transliteration | dative |
| Template:Lang Template:Transliteration | genitive |
| Template:Lang Template:Transliteration | locative |
| Template:Lang Template:Transliteration | only |
| Template:Lang Template:Transliteration | both |
Plurals are marked differently according to whether they are human (Template:Transliteration) or non-human (Template:Transliteration) nouns. Notably, the plural is not used when the noun is followed by a number.[1]
According to Plaisier (2007), Lepcha personal pronouns are as follows:[1]
Oblique forms appear in parentheses above. Lepcha personal pronouns can refer only to humans; otherwise demonstratives are used. Personal pronouns may take the definite article Template:Transliteration.[1]
Thematic classes
Many Lepcha nouns can be grouped into one of several classes based on associated characteristics. For example, many animal names begin with the Lepcha script syllabic Template:Angbr, e.g., Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss, Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss, Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss, and Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss. Other noun classes include Template:Angbr and Template:Angbr for plants, and Template:Angbr or Template:Angbr for snakes and bamboo products.[2][10]
Verbs
Lepcha verbs generally function as predicates or, in relative clauses, as modifiers before a head-noun. Verbs may also be nominalized by a combination of suffixes. For example, Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss may be suffixed to produce Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss.[1]
Many intransitive verbs incorporate a causative Template:Transliteration infix, sometimes followed by a Template:Transliteration suffix, to take a transitive sense:
- Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss → Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss;
- Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss → Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss;
- Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss → Template:Lang Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss.[1]
Verbs are followed by grammatical suffixes and particles. Verbal particles indicating sureness, polite requests, authoritativeness, dubiousness, and other nonlexical information follow clauses. Below is a chart of such verb- and clause-final suffixes and particles largely following Plaisier (2007):[1]
| Suffix or Particle |
Meaning |
|---|---|
| Template:Transliteration | progressive |
| Template:Transliteration | exhaustive |
| Template:Transliteration | perfective |
| Template:Transliteration | infinitive |
| Template:Transliteration | factual |
| Template:Transliteration | definite |
| Template:Transliteration | resultant |
| Template:Transliteration | adhortative |
| Template:Transliteration | question |
| Template:Transliteration | polite request |
| Template:Transliteration | assertive |
| Template:Transliteration | authoritative |
| Template:Transliteration | dubiousness |
| Template:Transliteration | certainty |
| Template:Transliteration | inference |
Verbs are negated by a circumfix, Template:Transliteration, e.g., Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss becomes Template:Transliteration Template:Gloss.[1]
Vocabulary
These are some sample words published in Renato Figuerido's Lepcha dictionary.[11]
| English | Lepcha (Latin) | Lepcha (Róng/Lepcha script) |
|---|---|---|
| Lady | Ku-mo | Template:Huge |
| Let | kón | Template:Huge |
| Proceed | Dí | Template:Huge |
| Reach a height | Thók | Template:Huge |
| Riverbank | Klóp | Template:Huge |
| A cut | Mó | Template:Huge |
| To pull | Krút | Template:Huge |
| Go | Nóng | Template:Huge |
| Flabby | Thyor | Template:Huge |
| Reflective Light | Lóng | Template:Huge |
| Palm | Lyók | Template:Huge |
| To be short | Tan | Template:Huge |
| Meat | Ke-rung | Template:Huge |
| Overclouded | Muk | Template:Huge |
| What comes first | Ták | Template:Huge |
| Mother | A-mo | Template:Huge |
| To knot | Tyep | Template:Huge |
| A spec of Sterculia | Ke-hlyám kun | Template:Huge |
| Be on strong legs | Krang | Template:Huge |
| Dirt | Me-ri | Template:Huge |
| To slice | Líp | Template:Huge |
| Entire | Shem | Template:Huge |
| Cold | Hyáng | Template:Huge |
| To be drawn together | Chom | Template:Huge |
| One's Self | Te-do | Template:Huge |
| Wide | Veng | Template:Huge |
| To arrest | Tho | Template:Huge |
| To crush | Shíp | Template:Huge |
| Mouth | A-bong | Template:Huge |
| To twist | Kar | Template:Huge |
| Arrow | Sa-li | Template:Huge |
| Egg | Tí | Template:Huge |
| To sit | Ngan | Template:Huge |
| Flow round | Kyúl | Template:Huge |
| Overclouded | Pe-mang | Template:Huge |
| House | A-dóng | Template:Huge |
| Carry | Bú | Template:Huge |
| Dream | Mong | Template:Huge |
| A corner | Tung-kyang | Template:Huge |
| Basket | Dyóng | Template:Huge |
| Large | Túng | Template:Huge |
| Husband | Evo | Template:Huge |
| Grain | Gró | Template:Huge |
| Rice basket | Ku-mu | Template:Huge |
| Placenta | A-yeng-tyol | Template:Huge |
| Quick | Rem | Template:Huge |
| Sew | Hrap | Template:Huge |
| A spec of Solanum | Ke-lim-bi | Template:Huge |
Sample text
The following text is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Lepcha:[12]
Lepcha in Róng Script
Lepcha in Devanagari Script
Romanisation
IPA Transcription
Translation
See also
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 A grammar of Lepcha{{#if:Plaisier|, Plaisier}. BRILL(2007). ISBN 978-90-04-15525-1
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Lepchas and their Tradition. National Informatics Centre, Sikkim(2002-01-25). Retrieved 2011-04-16.
- ↑ Template:Ethnologue18
- ↑ Language change in Lepcha: An assessment. The Linguistics Journal({Template:Year).
- ↑ Examining Transformation in Lepcha Culture and Language within Dzongu, Upper Sikkim: A Reflective Analysis. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research({Template:Year).
- ↑ Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region{{#if:van Driem|, van Driem}. Brill(2001). ISBN 90-04-12062-9
- ↑ Rongic: a vanished branch of Austroasiatic, Blench, Roger. Academia.edu(2013-12-31).
- ↑ The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems{{#if:Coulmas|, Coulmas}. Blackwell(1996). ISBN 0-631-21481-X
- ↑ Grammr of the Rong (Lepcha) Language{{#if:Mainwaring|, Mainwaring}. Baptist Mission Press(1876)
- ↑ Dictionary of the Lepcha-language{{#if:Mainwaring|, Mainwaring}. Unger bros.(1898)
- ↑ Freelang Lepcha-English dictionary, Figuerido, Renato B.(2014).
- ↑ ᰀᰪᰵᰶᰛᰦᰵ ᰝᰦᰵ ᰜᰦᰵ ᰝᰥᰪᰵ ᰠᰦᰵᰶ ᰛᰦᰵᰶᰊᰦᰵ ᰜᰦᰵ ᰀᰪᰵᰶ ᰛᰦᰵ ᰝᰦᰵ ᰜᰦᰵ. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 15 January 2026.
Further reading
- Information on Lepcha Language and Culture, Plaisier, Heleen(2010-11-13). Retrieved 2011-04-16.
- A grammar of the Róng (Lepcha) language, as it exists in the Dorjeling and Sikim hills{{#if:Mainwaring|, Mainwaring}. Printed by C. B. Lewis, Baptist Mission Press(1876)
Template:Sino-Tibetan languages Template:Languages of Northeast India Template:Languages of Bhutan Template:Languages of Nepal