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About: the concept in Hinduism

For other uses, see Avatar (2009 film).

other uses

Hindu god Vishnu (centre) surrounded by his ten major avatars, namely Matsya; Kurma; Varaha; Narasimha; Vamana; Parashurama; Rama; Krishna; Buddha, and Kalki

Template:Contains special characters Template:Hinduism

Avatar (Template:Lang-sa, Template:IAST; Template:IPA-sa) is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, or spirit on Earth.[1][2] The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes used to refer to any guru or revered human being.[3]Template:Sfn

The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature;[4] however, it appears in developed forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE.Template:Sfn Despite that, the concept of an avatar is compatible with the content of the Vedic literature like the Upanishads as it is symbolic imagery of the Saguna Brahman concept in the philosophy of Hinduism. The Rigveda describes Indra as endowed with a mysterious power of assuming any form at will.[5][6] The Bhagavad Gita expounds the doctrine of Avatara but with terms other than avatar.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Theologically, the term is most often associated with the Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other deities.[7] Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the Garuda Purana and the twenty-two avatars in the Bhagavata Purana, though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.[8] The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, avatars of the Devi in different appearances such as Tripura Sundari, Durga, Chandi, Chamunda, Mahakali, and Kali are commonly found.Template:Sfn[9][10] While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.[11] The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism.[12][13]

Incarnation concepts that are in some aspects similar to avatar are also found in Buddhism,Template:Sfn Christianity,[4] and other religions.Template:Sfn

The scriptures of Sikhism include the names of numerous Hindu gods and goddesses, but it rejected the doctrine of savior incarnation and endorsed the view of Hindu Bhakti movement saints such as Namdev, that formless eternal god is within the human heart, and man is his own savior.[14][15]

Etymology and meaning

The Sanskrit noun (Template:IAST, Template:IPA-hns) is derived from the Sanskrit prefix ava- (down) and the root Template:IAST (to cross over).Template:Sfn These roots trace back, states Monier-Williams, to -taritum, -tarati, -rītum.[3] It's cognate to "away" in English, which is root from PIE *au- means "off, away".[16]

Avatar means "descent, alight, to make one's appearance",[3] and refers to the embodiment of the essence of a superhuman being or a deity in another form.Template:Sfn The word also implies "to overcome, to remove, to bring down, to cross something".[3] In Hindu traditions, the "crossing or coming down" is symbolism, states Daniel Bassuk, of the divine descent from "eternity into the temporal realm, from unconditioned to the conditioned, from infinitude to finitude".[4] An avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna (with form, attributes) embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman (soul).[17] Avatar, according to Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati actually means 'Divine Descent' in his commentaries of The Shrimad Bhagavatam and The Bramha Samhita (mentioned in Brahmavaivarta Purana).

Neither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mention the word avatar as a noun.[4] The verb roots and form, such as Template:Transliteration, appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as "action of descending", but not as an incarnated person (avatara).Template:Sfn The related verb Template:Transliteration is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, another as "laying down the burden of man" suffering from the forces of evil.Template:Sfn

The term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu.[1][3] The earliest mention of Vishnu manifested in a human form to establish Dharma on Earth, uses other terms such as the word sambhavāmi in verse 4.6 and the word tanu in verse 9.11 of the Bhagavad Gita,Template:Sfn as well as other words such as akriti and rupa elsewhere.Template:Sfn It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the noun version of avatar appears, where it means embodiment of a deity.Template:Sfn The idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, and with ideas such as ansha-avatar or partial embodiments.Template:Sfn[1]

The term avatar, in colloquial use, is also an epithet or a word of reverence for any extraordinary human being who is revered for his or her ideas.Template:Sfn In some contexts, the term avatara just means a "landing place, site of sacred pilgrimage", or just "achieve one's goals after effort", or retranslation of a text in another language.[3] The term avatar is not unique to Hinduism even though the term originated with Hinduism. It is found in the Trikaya doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, in descriptions for the Dalai Lama in Tibetan Buddhism, and many ancient cultures.Template:Sfn

Avatar versus incarnation

The manifest embodiment is sometimes referred to as an incarnation.[18] The translation of avatar as "incarnation" has been questioned by Christian theologians, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The theological concept of Christ as an incarnation, as found in Christology, presents the Christian concept of incarnation. The term avatar in Hinduism refers to act of various gods taking form to perform a particular task which in most of the times is bringing dharma back. The concept of avatar is widely accepted all over the India.[19] Sheth disagrees and states that this claim is an incorrect understanding of the Hindu concept of avatar.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn Avatars are embodiments of spiritual perfection, driven by noble goals, in Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism.Template:Sfn The concept of the avatar in Hinduism is not incompatible with natural conception through a sexual act, which is again different from the Christian concept of the Virgin Birth.

As a loanword

Following 19th Century Western interest in Indian culture and Hinduism, the word "Avatar" was taken as loanword into English and other Western languages, where it is used in various contexts and meanings, often considerably different from its original meaning in Hinduism - see Avatar (disambiguation).

Avatars of Vishnu

Template:Main The concept of avatar within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu, the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu Trinity or Trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Vishnu's avatars descend to empower the good and fight evil, thereby restoring Dharma. Traditional Hindus see themselves not as "Hindu", but as Vaishnava (Worshippers of Vishnu), Shaiva (Worshippers of Shiva), or Shakta (Worshipper of the Shakti). Each of the deities has its own iconography and mythology, but common to all is the fact that the divine reality has an explicit form, a form that the worshipper can behold.[20] An oft-quoted passage from the Bhagavad Gita describes the typical role of an avatar of Vishnu:[7]Template:Sfn

Template:Poemquote

The Vishnu avatars appear in Hindu mythology whenever the cosmos is in crisis, typically because evil has grown stronger and has thrown the cosmos out of its balance.Template:Sfn The avatar then appears in a material form, to destroy evil and its sources, and restore the cosmic balance between the ever-present forces of good and evil.Template:Sfn

The most known and celebrated avatars of Vishnu, within the Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism, are Krishna, Rama, Narayana and Vasudeva. These names have extensive literature associated with them, each has its own characteristics, legends and associated arts.Template:Sfn The Mahabharata, for example, includes Krishna, while the Ramayana includes Rama.[21]

Dashavatara

Template:Main

The Bhagavata Purana describes Vishnu's avatars as innumerable, though ten of his incarnations, the Dashavatara, are celebrated therein as his major appearances.[8]Template:Sfn The ten major Vishnu avatars are mentioned in the Agni Purana, the Garuda Purana and the Bhagavata Purana.[22][23]

The ten best known avatars of Vishnu are collectively known as the Dashavatara (a Sanskrit compound meaning "ten avatars"). Five different lists are included in the Bhagavata Purana, where the difference is in the sequence of the names. Freda Matchett states that this re-sequencing by the composers may be intentional, so as to avoid implying priority or placing something definitive and limited to the abstract.Template:Sfn

The Avatars of Vishnu
Name Description
Matsya The fish avatar. He saves Manu and the seven sages from the cosmic flood, and in some traditions, saves the Vedas from an asura called Hayagriva.[24]
KurmaTemplate:Refn The tortoise/turtle avatar. He supports the mountain named Mandara while the devas and the asuras churn the ocean of milk to produce the nectar of immortality.[25]
Varaha The boar avatar. He rescues Bhumi, the goddess of the earth, when the asura Hiranyaksha abducts her, restoring her rightful place in the universe.[26]
Narasimha The lion avatar. He saves his devotee Prahlada and frees the three worlds from the tyranny of an asura named Hiranyakashipu.[27]
Vamana The dwarf avatar. He vanquishes the asura king Mahabali to the netherworld after taking three strides upon the universe, restoring the rule of Indra.[28]
Parashurama The warrior-sage avatar. He destroys the oppressive kings of the military class and creates a new social order.[29]
Rama The prince avatar. He rescues his wife Sita when she is abducted by the rakshasa king Ravana, restoring just rule to the world.[30]
Balarama(Debated) The elder brother of Krishna and the god of agriculture. He is variously described as an avatar of Shesha, the serpent-mount of Vishnu, and an avatar of Vishnu.[31]
Krishna The eighth avatar of Vishnu who incarnates to re-establish righteousness in the world. He slays Kamsa, the tyrant of Mathura and his uncle, and participates in the Kurukshetra War as the charioteer of Arjuna.[32]
Buddha(Debated) The historical Buddha, who incarnates to delude the asuras from the path of the Vedas, ensuring the victory of the devas. In some traditions, he is referred to as an avatar of Vishnu.[33]
Kalki The prophesied tenth avatar of Vishnu. He incarnates to bring an end to the present age of corruption called the Kali Yuga, re-establishing the four classes and law to the world.[34]

Longer alternatives

The Bhagavata Purana also goes on to give an alternate list, wherein it numerically lists out 23 Vishnu avatars in chapter 1.3.[35]

  1. Four Kumaras (Catursana): the four Sons of god Brahma and exemplifying the path of devotion
  2. Varaha: The divine boar who lifts earth from cosmic waters
  3. Narada: the divine-sage who travels the worlds as a devotee of Vishnu
  4. Nara-Narayana: the twin-sages
  5. Kapila: a renowned sage spoken of in the Mahabharata, son of Kardama Muni and Devahuti and sometimes identified with the founder of the Samkhya school of philosophy
  6. Dattatreya: the combined avatar of the Hindu trinity Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. He was born to the sage Atri became a great seer himself
  7. Yajna: the lord of sacrifices
  8. Rishabha: the father of Bharata Chakravartin and Bahubali
  9. Prithu: the sovereign-king who milked the earth as a cow to get the world's grain and vegetation and also invented agriculture
  10. Matsya: A narwhal who guided Manu's ark during the pralaya (deluge) and also killed demon Hayagriva
  11. Kurma: A giant tortoise who balances Mount Mandara atop his carapace during the churning of cosmic ocean of milk
  12. Dhanvantari: the father of Ayurvedic medicine and a physician to the Devas
  13. Mohini: the enchantress
  14. Narasimha: The man-lion who kills demon Hiranyakashpu
  15. Vamana: The dwarf-brahmana who takes the three worlds from Bali Maharaj and purifies Him
  16. Parashurama: The Brahmin warrior with an axe who kills Kartyavira Arjuna and his Kshatriya allies
  17. Rama: 'Perfect King' from Suryavansha, Subject of Ramayana
  18. Vyasa: the compiler of the scriptures – Vedas and writer of the scriptures (Puranas) and the epic Mahabharata
  19. Krishna: Subject of the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita
  20. Gautama Buddha: Founder Of Buddhism .
  21. Kalki: The Divine Warrior

Avatars like Hayagriva, Hamsa and Garuda are also mentioned in the Pancharatra making a total of forty-six avatars.[36] However, despite these lists, the commonly accepted number of ten avatars for Vishnu was fixed well before the 10th century CE.[22] Madhvacharya also regards Gautama Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu.[37]

Manava Purana

Manava Purana is one of Upa puranas. It narrates 42 avatars of Vishnu.

  1. Adipurusha
  2. Four Kumaras (Chatursanas)
  3. Narada
  4. Dattatreya
  5. Kapila
  6. Nara- Narayana
  7. Yajna
  8. Vibhu
  9. Satyasena
  10. Hari
  11. Vaikunta
  12. Ajita
  13. Sharvabhouma
  14. Vrishbha
  15. Visvaksena
  16. Dharmasetu
  17. Sudhama
  18. Yogeshwara
  19. Brihadbhanu
  20. Shaligram
  21. Hayagriva
  22. Hamsa
  23. Vyasa
  24. Matsya
  25. Kurma
  26. Dhanvantri
  27. Mohini
  28. Prithu
  29. Vrishbha deva
  30. Varaha
  31. Narasimha
  32. Vamana
  33. Parashurama
  34. Rama
  35. Krishna
  36. Buddha
  37. Vikhanasa
  38. Venkateswara
  39. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
  40. Dhyaneshwar
  41. Kalki

Types

Mohini, the female avatar of Vishnu (statue at Belur temple, Karnataka.)

The avatar concept was further developed and refined in later Hindu texts. One approach was to identify full avatars and partial avatars. Krishna, Rama, and Narasimha were full avatars (purna avatars), while others were partial avatars (ansha avatars).Template:Sfn Some declared, states Noel Sheth, that every living creature is an avatar of Vishnu.Template:Sfn The Pancharatra text of Vaishnavism declares that Vishnu's avatars include those that are direct and complete (Template:Transliteration), indirect and endowed (Template:Transliteration), cosmic and salvific (Template:Transliteration), inner and inspirational (Template:Transliteration), consecrated and in the form of image (Template:Transliteration).Template:Sfn

Yet another classification, developed in Krishna schools, centers around Guna-avatars, Purusha-avatars and Lila-avatars, with their subtypes.Template:Sfn[38] The Guna-avatar classification of avatars is based on the Guṇas concept of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, that is Rajas (Brahma), Sattva (Vishnu), and Tamas (Shiva).Template:Sfn[38] These personalities of the Trimurti are referred to as Guna avatars.Template:Sfn The Purushavatara are three. The first evolves all matter (Prakriti), the second is the soul present in each individual creature, the third is the interconnected oneness or Brahman that connects all souls.Template:Sfn[39] The Lilavataras are partial or full manifestations of Vishnu, where either some powers (Shakti) or material parts of him exist.Template:Sfn[38]

Vishnu is Purushavatara.[40][41] The Matsya, Kurma, and Vamana avatars of Vishnu are Lilavataras.[38][40] A Purnarupa in this classification, is when Vishnu manifests completely along with his qualities and powers. In Bengal Vaishnavism, Krishna is the Purnarupa.Template:Sfn In Shaivism, Bhairava is the purnarupa of Shiva.[42]

In Sikhism

24 avatars of Vishnu are mentioned in Bachitar Natak's composition in Dasam Granth, the second scripture of Sikhism written by Guru Gobind Singh:[43]

Template:Columns-list

The Guru Granth Sahib reverentially includes the names of numerous Hindu deities, including Vishnu avatars such as Krishna, Hari, and Rama, as well those of Devi as Durga.[44][45][46]

Dasam Granth has three major compositions, one each dedicated to avatars of Vishnu (Chaubis avatar) and Brahma.[43][47] However, Sikhism rejects the doctrine of savior incarnation, and only accepts the abstract nirguna formless god.[14][48] The Sikh Gurus endorsed the view of Hindu Bhakti movement saints such as Namdev (≈1270 – 1350 CE) that formless eternal god is within the human heart and man is his own savior.[14][49]

In Isma'ilism

The Gupti Ismailis, who observe pious circumspection as Hindus, uphold that the first Shi‘i Imam, ‘Ali b. Abi Talib, as well as his descendants though the line of Isma‘il, are collectively Kalki, the tenth and final avatāra of Vishnu. According to this interpretation, these figures represent the continuity of divine guidance to humankind. In the view of some Guptis, this is corroborated by the Quranic verse 14:4 which mentions the idea that God had sent a messenger to every land. They understand the avatāras to be these messengers sent by God to their people in the Indian subcontinent.[50]

Avatars of Shiva

Sharabha (right) with Narasimha (18th-century painting, Pahari/Kangra School)

Although Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to avatars of Shiva, the avatar doctrine is neither universally accepted nor commonly adopted in Shaivism.[51] The views on the doctrine of incarnation has been one of the significant doctrinal differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism, in addition to their differences on the role of householder life versus monastic life for spiritual release.[12][13][52] Shaivism is a transcendental theology, where man, with the help of his Guru, is his own savior.[52]

The Linga Purana lists twenty-eight avatars of Shiva.[53] In the Shiva Purana there is a distinctly Saivite version of a traditional avatar myth: Shiva brings forth Virabhadra, one of his terrifying forms, in order to calm Narasimha, an avatar of Vishnu. When that fails, Shiva manifests as the human-lion-bird Sharabha which calms down lion-man Narasimha avatar of Vishnu, and Shiva then gives Vishnu a chakra (not to be confused with Sudarshan Chakra) as gift. A similar story is told in the late medieval era Sharabha Upanishad.[54] However, Vaishnava Dvaita school refutes this Shaivite view of Narasimha.[55] According to the Shiva Purana, Lord Shiva has 19 avatars. According to the Kurma Purana, he has 28.

The vanara god Hanuman who helped Rama (the Vishnu avatar) is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra (Shiva).[56][57] Some regional deities like Khandoba are also believed by some to be avatars of Shiva.[58][59] Ashwatthama, the son of Drona is also considered to be an Avatar of Lord Shiva.

Shesha and his avatars (Balarama and Lakshmana) are occasionally linked to Shiva.Template:Sfn[60][61][62] Adi Shankara, the formulator of Advaita Vedanta, is also occasionally regarded as an avatar of Shiva.[63]

In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh mentioned two avatars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avatar and Parasnath Avatar.[64]

Avatars of Devis

Template:Multiple image Avatars are also observed in Shaktism, the sect dedicated to the worship of the Goddess (Devi), but they do not have universal acceptance in the sect. The Devi Bhagavata Purana describes the descent of Devi avatars to punish the wicked and defend the righteous as – much as the Bhagavata Purana does with the avatars of Vishnu.[65]

Nilakantha, an 18th-century commentator on the Devi Bhagavata Purana – which includes the Devi Gita – says that various avatars of the Goddess includes Shakambhari and even the masculine Krishna and Rama – generally thought to be Vishnu's avatars.[66] Parvati, Lakshmi and Saraswati are main goddesses worshipped as Devi avatars.[67]

Avatars of Parvati

Devi is popular in her form as Parvati. In Devi Mahatmya she is seen as the Goddess Mahakali, and in Uma Samhita, she is seen as Devi herself. Regarding her incarnations, it varies per sect in Hinduism. She could be all Goddesses as said in Shaivism and some main Shatism interpretations like the Sri kula and Kali Kula families, or just a form of Devi in some other Shaktism interpretations and many Vaishnava interpretations. With this in mind, Parvati's forms include:

All of these incarnations helped provide security to the world and even brought Shiva into the participation of worldly affairs.[68]

Avatars of Lakshmi

Like Vishnu, his consort Lakshmi incarnates as in many forms to help provide order and to enlighten the world with her consort. She has many forms, and just like Parvati, some of her forms are not consistent throughout all sects and interpretations of Hinduism. In Vaishnavism and some interpretations of Shaktism, Lakshmi is seen as Devi herself. She could be every Goddess as said in Vaishnavism and some interpretations of Shaktism, or just another form of Devi as seen in other interpretations of Shaktism and in Shaivism. With this in mind, Lakshmi's forms include:

Avatars of Brahma

In Dasam Granth, second scriptures of Sikhs written by Guru Gobind Singh, mentioned seven Brahma Avatars.[69]

  1. Valmiki
  2. Kashyapa
  3. Shukra
  4. Baches
  5. Vyasa
  6. Khat
  7. Kalidasa

Khat avatar in this list refers to six different scholars who are considered to be founders of six schools of Indian philosophy.[70] According to the Skanda Purana, Brahma incarnated himself as Yajnavalkya in response to a curse from Shiva.[71]

Avatars of Ganesha

The Linga Purana declares that Ganesha incarnates to destroy demons and to help the gods and pious people.[72] The two Upapuranas – Ganesha Purana and Mudgala Purana – detail the avatars of Ganesha. Both these upapuranas are core scriptures of the Ganapatya sect – exclusively dedicated to Ganesha worship.

Four avatars of Ganesha are listed in the Ganesha Purana: Mohotkata, Mayūreśvara, Gajanana and Dhumraketu. Each avatar corresponds to a different yuga, has a different mount and different skin complexion, but all the avatars have a common purpose – to slay demons.[73]

The Mudgala Puranam describes eight avatars of Ganesha:[74]

  1. Vakratunda (Template:IAST) ("twisting trunk"), his mount is a lion.
  2. Ekadanta ("single tusk"), his mount is a mouse.
  3. Mahodara ("big belly"), his mount is a mouse.
  4. Gajavaktra (or Gajānana) ("elephant face"), his mount is a mouse.
  5. Lambodara ("pendulous belly"), his mount is a mouse.
  6. Vikata (Template:IAST) ("unusual form", "misshapen"), his mount is a peacock.
  7. Vighnaraja (Template:IAST) ("king of obstacles"), his mount is the celestial serpent Template:IAST.
  8. Dhumravarna (Template:IAST) ("grey color") corresponds to Śiva, his mount is a horse.

Avatars of Varuna

Jhulelal, incarnation of Varuna

Jhulelal, the Iṣṭa-devatā (most-revered deity) of Sindhi Hindus, is considered the incarnation of Varuna.[75]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 James Lochtefeld (2002), "Avatar" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, pages 72–73
  2. ↑ Avatar and Incarnation: The Divine in Human Form in the World's Religions{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oneworld(1997). ISBN 978-1-85168-130-3
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 A Sanskrit-English Dictionary{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(1923)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Palgrave Macmillan(1987). ISBN 978-1-349-08642-9
  5. ↑ Rig Veda 3.53.8 (Maghavan); 6.47.18 (Indra)
  6. ↑ Swami Harshananda, A Concise Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Ramakrishna Math, Bangalore (2008) Vol.1, page 221
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Gale's Encyclopedia of Religion{{#if:Kinsley|, Kinsley}. Thomson Gale(2005). ISBN 978-0-02-865735-6
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Krishna: A Sourcebook{{#if:Bryant|, Bryant}. Oxford University Press US(2007). ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6
  9. ↑ The life of Hinduism{{#if:Hawley|, Hawley}. University of California Press(2006). ISBN 978-0-520-24914-1
  10. ↑ Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(1998). ISBN 978-81-208-1522-3
  11. ↑ James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, page 635
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Religious Diversity in Singapore{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore(2008). ISBN 978-981-230-754-5
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Encyclopedia of Hinduism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Infobase(2006). ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2005). ISBN 978-0-19-157806-9
  15. ↑ Christopher Shackle and Arvind Mandair (2005), Teachings of the Sikh Gurus, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. xxxiv–xli
  16. ↑ Avatar | Origin and meaning of avatar by Online Etymology Dictionary.
  17. ↑ Life of Tukaram: Translation from Mahipati's Bhaktalilamrita{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(1980). ISBN 978-81-208-0170-7
  18. ↑ Christian Theology in Asia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(2008). ISBN 978-1-139-47206-7
  19. ↑ Mercy Amba Oduyoye, H. M. Vroom, One gospel – many cultures: case studies and reflections on cross-cultural theology, Rodopi, 2003, Template:ISBN, p. 111.
  20. ↑ Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routeledge(2016). ISBN 978-0-415-85881-6
  21. ↑ The intimate other: love divine in Indic religions{{#if:King|, King}. Orient Blackswan(2005). ISBN 978-81-250-2801-7
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Religious beliefs and practices of North India during the early mediaeval period, Volume 1{{#if:Mishra|, Mishra}. BRILL(1973). ISBN 978-90-04-03610-9
  23. ↑ A critical study of the Bhagavata Purana, with special reference to bhakti{{#if:Rukmani|, Rukmani}. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series(1970)
  24. ↑ Handbook of Hindu Mythology{{#if:Williams|, Williams}. OUP USA(2008-03-27). ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2
  25. ↑ Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide{{#if:Dalal|, Dalal}. Penguin UK(2014-04-18). ISBN 978-81-8475-277-9
  26. ↑ Mythology of Vishnu and His Incarnations{{#if:Varadpande|, Varadpande}. Gyan Publishing House(2009). ISBN 978-81-212-1016-4
  27. ↑ The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths{{#if:Dalal|, Dalal}. Penguin UK(2014-04-18). ISBN 978-81-8475-396-7
  28. ↑ Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide{{#if:Dalal|, Dalal}. Penguin UK(2014-04-18). ISBN 978-81-8475-277-9
  29. ↑ Encyclopedia of Hinduism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Infobase Publishing(2006). ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5
  30. ↑ Encyclopedia of Hinduism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Infobase Publishing(2006). ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5
  31. ↑ Encyclopedia of Hinduism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Infobase Publishing(2006). ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5
  32. ↑ Encyclopedia of Hinduism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Infobase Publishing(2006). ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5
  33. ↑ The Encyclopedia of Religion{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Macmillan(1987). ISBN 978-0-02-909480-8
  34. ↑ Puranic Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Work with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature{{#if:Mani|, Mani}. Motilal Banarsidass(2015-01-01). ISBN 978-81-208-0597-2
  35. ↑ CHAPTER THREE. vedabase.io. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  36. ↑ Introduction to the Pāñcarātra and the Ahirbudhnya saṃhitā{{#if:Schrader|, Schrader}. Adyar Library(1916)
  37. ↑ Helmuth von Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Geistesströmungen des Ostens vol. 2, Bonn 1923, ch. Einleitung (p. *1-2).
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Bhakti and Embodiment: Fashioning Divine Bodies and Devotional Bodies in Krsna Bhakti{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2015). ISBN 978-1-317-66910-4
  39. ↑ Theory of Avatāra and Divinity of Chaitanya{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Atlantic Publishers(2002). ISBN 978-81-269-0169-2
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Palgrave Macmillan(1987). ISBN 978-1-349-08642-9
  41. ↑ The Hindu World{{#if:Mittal|, Mittal}. Routledge(2004). ISBN 978-0-203-67414-7
  42. ↑ The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(2003). ISBN 978-0-521-52865-8
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 SS Kapoor and MK Kapoor (2009), Composition 8, 9 and 10, Dasam Granth, Hemkunt, Template:ISBN, pages 16–17
  44. ↑ Torkel Brekke (2014), Religion, War, and Ethics: A Sourcebook of Textual Traditions (Editors: Gregory M. Reichberg and Henrik Syse), Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 673, 675, 672–686;
    Christopher Shackle and Arvind Mandair (2005), Teachings of the Sikh Gurus, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages xxxiv–xli
  45. ↑ SS Kapoor and MK Kapoor (2009), Composition 8, 9 and 10, Dasam Granth, Hemkunt, Template:ISBN, pages 15–16
  46. ↑ Sikhism and History{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2004). ISBN 978-0-19-566708-0
  47. ↑ J Deol (2000), Sikh Religion, Culture and Ethnicity (Editors: AS Mandair, C Shackle, G Singh), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 31–33
  48. ↑ Understanding Sikhism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Dunedin Academic(2004). ISBN 978-1-903765-15-9
  49. ↑ Encyclopedia of Global Religion{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. SAGE Publications(2011). ISBN 978-1-4522-6656-5
  50. ↑ Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community. The Journal of Asian Studies({Template:Date).
  51. ↑ Avatar and incarnation{{#if:Parrinder|, Parrinder}. Oxford University Press(1982). ISBN 978-0-19-520361-5
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rodopi(2002). ISBN 978-90-420-1510-4
  53. ↑ A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1{{#if:Winternitz|, Winternitz}. Motilal Banarsidass(1981). ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3
  54. ↑ SG Desai (1996), A critical study of the later Upanishads, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pages 109–110
  55. ↑ A history of the Dvaita school of Vedānta and its literature: from the earliest beginnings to our own times{{#if:Sharma|, Sharma}. Motilal Banarsidass(2000). ISBN 978-81-208-1575-9
  56. ↑ Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey{{#if:Lutgendorf|, Lutgendorf}. Oxford University Press US(2007). ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8
  57. ↑ Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa{{#if:Catherine Ludvík|, Catherine Ludvík}. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.(1994). ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5
  58. ↑ The History of Sacred Places in India as Reflected in Traditional Literature{{#if:Sontheimer|, Sontheimer}. BRILL(1990). ISBN 978-90-04-09318-8 p.118
  59. ↑ Criminal Gods and Demon Devotees: Essays on the Guardians of Popular Hinduism{{#if:Sontheimer|, Sontheimer}. State University of New York Press(1989). ISBN 978-0-88706-981-9
  60. ↑ The Padma-Purana: Part IX{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(1956)
  61. ↑ Lord Balarama. Orissa Review(2010).
  62. ↑ Elder Brother of God, Pattanaik, Devdutt. Devdutt(2010).
  63. ↑ The Hindus: An Alternative History{{#if:Doniger|, Doniger}. Oxford University Press(2010)
  64. ↑ SS Kapoor and MK Kapoor (2009), Composition 10, Rudra Avtar, Dasam Granth, Hemkunt, Template:ISBN, page 17
  65. ↑ The triumph of the goddess: the canonical models and theological visions of the Devī-Bhāgavata Purāṇa{{#if:Brown|, Brown}. SUNY Press(1990). ISBN 978-0-7914-0363-1
  66. ↑ The Devī Gītā: the song of the Goddess{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. SUNY Press(1998). ISBN 978-0-7914-3940-1 verses 9.22cd-23ab
  67. ↑ Brown, p. 270.
  68. ↑ Kinsley, David (1987, reprint 2005). Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, p.35
  69. ↑ Dasam Granth{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Hemkunt Press. ISBN 9788170103257
  70. ↑ "Six Pillars of Indian Philosophy: Khat Avatar" , Scientific Monk, Retrieved 21 April 2023
  71. ↑ The Skanda-Purana: Part XVII{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(2002)
  72. ↑ Gaṇapati: song of the self{{#if:Grimes|, Grimes}. SUNY Press(1995). ISBN 978-0-7914-2439-1
  73. ↑ Grimes, pp. 100–105.
  74. ↑ Phyllis Granoff, "Template:IAST," in Robert L. Brown (ed.) Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, pp. 94–5, note 2. Template:ISBN
  75. ↑ Exploring Jhulelal – a symbol of interfaith harmony in Sindh. The Express Tribune(8 November 2018). Retrieved 30 January 2020.

References

Citations

General bibliography

  • Avatāra. Oxford Bibliographies Online: Hinduism({Template:Year). Short introduction and bibliography of sources about Avatāra.
  • The Myths and Gods of India{{#if:Daniélou|, Daniélou}. Inner Traditions(1991). ISBN 0-89281-354-7
  • Kleine schriften{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Otto Harrassowitz(1978). ISBN 978-3447048606
  • The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1 & 2{{#if:Lochtefeld|, Lochtefeld}. Rosen Publishing(2002). ISBN 978-0-8239-2287-1
  • Krishna, Lord or Avatara?: The Relationship Between Krishna and Vishnu{{#if:Matchett|, Matchett}. Routledge(2001). ISBN 978-0-7007-1281-6
  • Hindu Avatāra and Christian Incarnation: A Comparison. Philosophy East and West({Template:Date).

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