Kayastha

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Kayastha (also referred to as Kayasth) denotes a cluster of disparate Indian communities broadly categorised by the regions of the Indian subcontinent in which they were traditionally locatedTemplate:Mdashthe Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas of North India, the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus of Maharashtra, the Bengali Kayasthas of Bengal and Karanas[1][2] of Odisha. All of them were traditionally considered "writing castes", who had historically served the ruling powers as administrators, ministers and record-keepers.[3][4]

The earliest known reference to the term Kayastha dates back to the Kushan Empire,[5] when it evolved into a common name for a writer or scribe.[6] In the Sanskrit literature and inscriptions, it was used to denote the holders of a particular category of offices in the government service.[7] In this context, the term possibly derived from Template:Lang ('principal, capital, treasury') and -Template:Lang ('to stay') and perhaps originally stood for an officer of the royal treasury, or revenue department.[8][5]

Over the centuries, the occupational histories of Kayastha communities largely revolved around scribal services. However, these scribes did not simply take dictation but acted in the range of capacities better indicated by the term "secretary". They used their training in law, literature, court language, accounting, litigation and many other areas to fulfil responsibilities in all these venues.[9][10] Kayasthas, along with Brahmins, had access to formal education as well as their own system of teaching administration, including accountancy, in the early-medieval India.[11]

Modern scholars list them among Indian communities that were traditionally described as "urban-oriented", "upper caste" and part of the "well-educated" pan-Indian elite, alongside Punjabi Khatris, Kashmiri Pandits, Parsis, Nagar Brahmins of Gujarat, Chitpawans and Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus (CKPs) of Maharashtra, South-Indian Brahmins including Deshastha Brahmins from Southern parts of India and upper echelons of the Muslim as well as Christian communities that made up the middle class at the time of Indian independence in 1947.[12][13][14]

Origins

Etymology

According to Merriam-Webster, the word Kāyastha is probably formed from the Sanskrit kāya (body), and the suffix -stha (standing, being in).[15]

As a class of administrators

As evidenced by literary and epigraphical texts, Kayasthas had emerged as a 'class of administrators' between late-ancient and early-mediaeval period of Indian history. Their emergence is explained by modern scholars as a result of growth of state machinery, complication of taxation system and the "rapid expansion of land-grant practice that required professional documenting fixation".[16][5] The term also finds mention in an inscription of the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I, dated to 442 CE, in which prathama-kāyastha (Template:Translation) is used as an administrative designation.[17] The Yājñavalkya Smṛti, also from the Gupta era, and the Vishnu Smriti describe kayasthas as record-keepers and accountants, but not as Template:Lang (caste or clan).[18] Similarly, the term Kayastha is used in the works of Kshemendra, Kalhana and Bilhana to refer to members of bureaucracy varying from Template:Lang (Template:Translation) to the Template:Lang (Template:Translation).[19]

According to Romila Thapar, the offices that demanded formal education including that of a kayastha were generally occupied by the "Brahmins, revenue collectors, treasurers and those concerned with legal matters".[20]

In Buddhist association

According to Chitrarekha Gupta, it is possible that Buddhists, in their effort to create an educated non-Brahmin class, strove to popularize the utility of education and fostered those vocations that required a knowledge of writing. This is corroborated in Udāna, where the lekha-sippa ('craft of writing'), was regarded as the highest of all the crafts. It is also backed by the fact that the earliest epigraphical records mentioning lekhaka ('writer') or kayastha have been made in association with Buddhism.[21]

As an independent guild of professionals

It is possible that kayasthas may have started out as a separate profession, similar to bankers, merchants, and artisans. As suggested in certain epigraphs, they had a representative in the district-level administration, along with those of bankers and merchants. This is also implied in Template:Lang, where a kayastha would work for any man who paid his wages on time. Possibly secular knowledge, like writing, administration, and jurisprudence, was monopolised by a non-Brahmin professional elite that later came be referred as kayasthas.[22]

History

From classical to early-medieval India

The Kayasthas, at least as an office, played an important role in administering the Gangetic plains from the Gupta period. The earliest evidence comes from a Mathura inscription of Vasudeva I, composed by a Kayastha Śramaṇa.[5] From this point we find, the term kayastha occurring in the inscription of the Gupta Emperor Kumaragupta I as prathama-kāyastha,[23] as karaṇa-kāyastha in Vainayagupta’s inscription,[24] and as gauḍa-kāyastha in an Apshadha inscription dated 672 CE.[25]Template:Rp The occasional references to individuals of the Karaṇa caste occupying high government offices are made in inscriptions and literary works too.[26] Razia Banu has suggested that Brahmin and Kayastha migrants were brought to Bengal during the reign of the Gupta Empire to help manage the state affairs.[27]Template:Rp According to a legend, a Bengali King named Adisur had invited Brahmins accompanied by Kayasthas from Kannauj who became an elite sub-group described as Kulin.[28] However, such claims are disputable and even rejected by some scholars.[25]Template:Rp

From the ninth-century and perhaps even earlier, Kayasthas had started to consolidate into a distinct caste.[29] This is evident from a epigraphic record dated 871 CE of the King Amoghavarsha that mentions a branch of Kayasthas referred to as vālabhya-kāyastha. The author of the Sanskrit work Udayasundarī-kathā also referred to himself as vālabhya-kayāstha and characterized Kayasthas as 'ornaments of the Kṣatriyas'.[30]

In Soḍḍhala’s account

According to Soḍḍhala, who claimed to be a Kayastha himself, Kayasthas traced their descent to a younger brother of the Maitrika king, identified as Śilāditya VI or VII, referred to as Kalāditya. He narrates that Kalāditya had besieged Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty that led to the victory of his elder brother. Subsequently, he was entrusted by Śilāditya to administer his kingdom at the advice of the Goddess Rāja Lakśmī. Kalāditya has been further described as an incarnation of a gaṇa (Template:Translation) of Shiva called Kayastha.[31]

Late medieval India

In Bengal, during the reign of the Gupta Empire beginning in the 4th century, when systematic and large-scale colonisation by Indo-Aryan Kayasthas and Brahmins first took place, Kayasthas were brought over by the Guptas to help manage the affairs of state.[27]Template:Rp

After the Muslim conquest of India, they mastered Persian, which became the official language of the Mughal courts.[32] Some converted to Islam and formed the Muslim Kayasth community in northern India.

Bengali Kayasthas had been the dominant landholding caste prior to the Muslim conquest, and continued this role under Muslim rule. Indeed, Muslim rulers had from a very early time confirmed the Kayasthas in their ancient role as landholders and political intermediaries.[33]

Bengali Kayasthas served as treasury officials and wazirs (government ministers) under Mughal rule. Political scientist U. A. B. Razia Akter Banu writes that, partly because of Muslim sultans' satisfaction with them as technocrats, many Bengali Kayasthas in the administration became zamindars and jagirdars. According to Abu al-Fazl, most of the Hindu zamindars in Bengal were Kayasthas.[27]Template:Rp

Maharaja Pratapaditya, the king of Jessore who declared independence from Mughal rule in the early 17th century, was a Bengali Kayastha.[34]

In Sanskrit literature

The Kayastha appears as a figure in Act IX of the Template:Lang, where a sreṣṭhin and kāyastha are shown accompanying a judge (adhikaraṇika) and assisting him. In Act V there is mention that "Moreover, O friend, a courtesan, an elephant, a Kayastha, a mendicant, a spy and a donkey—where these dwell, there not even villains can flourish."[5] In Template:Lang, a Kayastha named Śakaṭadāsa is a crucial character and one of the trusted men of the Prime Minister of the Nanda King. According to Chitrarekha Gupta, the title Ārya added to the name of Śakaṭadāsa implies that he was a member of the nobility.[35] Another Kayastha called Acala is the scribe of Chanakya.[36]

In early-mediaeval Kashmir too, the term kayastha denoted an occupational class whose principal duty, besides carrying on the general administration of the state, consisted in the collection of revenue and taxes. Kshemendra’s Narmamālā composed during the reign of Ananta (1028-1063 CE) gives a list of contemporary Kayastha officers that included Gṛhakṛtyadhipati, Paripālaka, Mārgapati, Gañja-divira, Āsthāna-divira, Nagara-divira, Lekhakopādhya and Niyogi. Kalhana’s Rājataraṃgiṇī ('The River of Kings') and Bilhana's Vikramāṅkadevacarita ('Life of King Vikramaditya') also mention Kayasthas.[37][38] It is also mentioned that father of Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota Dynasty, Durlabhavardhan, had held the post of Aśvaghāsa-kāyastha.[39]

Kayasthas have been authors of several Sanskrit texts too.

Table 1. Some important Sanskrit works authored by the Kayasthas
Work(s) Genre(s) Author Author's lineage Date
Rāmacarita Biography Sandhyākaranandin Karana[40] 12th c.
Udayasundarī Kathā Champu Soḍḍhala Vālabhya[31] 11th c.
Rasa Saṅketa Kalikā, Varṇanighaṇṭu Medicine, Tantra Kāyastha Cāmuṇḍa Naigama[41] 15th c.
Kṛtyakalpataru Administration Lakṣmīdhara Vāstavya[42] 12th c.

In Brahmanical literature

Kayasthas have been recorded as a separate caste responsible for writing secular documents and maintaining records in Brahmanical religious writings dating back to the seventh-century.[43] In these texts, some described Kayasthas as Kshatriyas, while others often described them as a 'mixed-origin' caste with Brahmin and Shudra components. This was probably an attempt by the Brahmins to rationalize their rank in the traditional caste hierarchy and perhaps a later invention rather than a historical fact.[44][45]

British India

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A Kayastha employee of the political agent of the Bagelkhand Agency 1901.

During the British Raj, Kayasthas continued to proliferate in public administration, qualifying for the highest executive and judicial offices open to Indians.[46]Template:Page needed

Bengali Kayasthas took on the role occupied by merchant castes in other parts of India and profited from business contacts with the British. In 1911, for example, Bengali Kayasthas and Bengali Brahmins owned 40% of all the Indian-owned mills, mines and factories in Bengal.[47]

Modern India

The Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas, Bengali Kayasthas and CKPs were among the Indian communities in 1947, at the time of Indian independence, that constituted the middle class and were traditionally "urban and professional" (following professions like doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, etc.) According to P. K. Varma, "education was a common thread that bound together this pan Indian elite" and almost all the members of these communities could read and write English and were educated beyond school.[48]

The Kayasthas today mostly inhabit central, eastern, northern India, and particularly Bengal.[49] They are considered a Forward Caste, as they do not qualify for any of the reservation benefits allotted to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes that are administered by the Government of India.[50] This classification has increasingly led to feelings of unease and resentment among the Kayasthas, who believe that the communities that benefit from reservation are gaining political power and employment opportunities at their expense. Thus, particularly since the 1990 report of the Mandal Commission on reservation, Kayastha organisations have been active in areas such as Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal and Orissa. These groups are aligning themselves with various political parties to gain political and economic advantages; by 2009 they were demanding 33 percent reservation in government jobs.[51]

Sub-groups

Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas

Template:MainThe Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas of Northern India are named thus because they have a myth of origin that says they descend from the 12 sons of the Hindu god Chitragupta, the product of his marriages to Devi Shobhavati and Devi Nandini.[18] The suffix -vanshi is Sanskrit and translates as belonging to a particular family dynasty.[52]

At least some Chitraguptavanshi subcastes seem to have formed by the 11th or 12th centuries, evidenced by various names being used to describe them in inscriptions.[53] Although at that time, prior to the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, they were generally outnumbered by Brahmins in the Hindu royal courts of northern India, some among these Kayasthas wrote eulogies for the kings. Of the various regional Kayastha communities it was those of north India who remained most aligned to their role of scribes, whereas in other areas there became more emphasis on commerce.[54][55]

The group of Bhatnagar, Srivastava, Ambashtha and Saxena of Doab were classified by various Indian, British and missionary observers to be the most learned and dominant of the "service castes".[56]

Bengali Kayasthas

Template:Main

In eastern India, Bengali Kayasthas are believed to have evolved from a class of officials into a caste between the 5th-6th centuries and 11th-12th centuries, its component elements being putative Kshatriyas and mostly Brahmins. They most likely gained the characteristics of a caste under the Sena dynasty.[57] According to Tej Ram Sharma, an Indian historian, the Kayasthas of Bengal had not yet developed into a distinct caste during the reign of the Gupta Empire, although the office of the Kayastha (scribe) had been instituted before the beginning of the period, as evidenced from the contemporary Smritis. Sharma further states:Template:Blockquote

Chandraseniya Prabhu Kayasthas

Template:Main In Maharashtra, Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus (CKP) claim descent from the warrior Chandrasen.[58] Historically they produced prominent warriors and also held positions such as Deshpandes and Gadkaris (fort holder, an office similar to that of a castellan.[59] Traditionally, the CKPs have the upanayana (thread ceremony) and have been granted the rights to study the vedas and perform vedic rituals along with the Brahmins.[60]

Varna status

As the Kayasthas are a non-cohesive group with regional differences rather than a single caste, their position in the Hindu varna system of ritual classification has not been uniform.

This was reflected in Raj era court rulings. Hayden Bellenoit gives details of various Raj era law cases and concludes the varna Kayastha was resolved in those cases by taking into account regional differences and customs followed by the specific community under consideration. Bellenoit disagrees with Rowe, showing that Risley's theories were in fact used ultimately to classify them as Kshatriyas by the British courts. The first case began in 1860 in Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh with a property dispute where the plaintiff was considered an "illegitimate child" by the defendants, a north-Indian Kayastha family. The British court denied inheritance to the child, citing that Kayasthas are Dvija, "twice-born" or "upper-caste" and that the illegitimate children of Dwijas have no rights to inheritance. In the next case in 1875 in the Allahabad High Court, a north Indian Kayastha widow was denied adoption rights as she was an upper-caste i.e. Dwija woman. However, the aforementioned 1884 adoption case and the 1916 property dispute saw the Calcutta High Court rule that the Bengali Kayasthas were shudras. The Allahabad High Court ruled in 1890 that Kayasthas were Kshatriyas.[61][62] Hayden Bellenoit concludes from an analysis of those that Template:Blockquote Even where the shudra designation was adjudged, the Raj courts appear to have sometimes recognised that the Bengali Kayasthas were degraded from an earlier kshatriya status due to intermarrying with both shudras and slaves ('dasa') which resulted in the common Bengali Kayastha surname of 'Das'.[61] The last completed census of the British Raj (1931) classified them as an "upper caste", i.e. Dwija,[62] and the final British Raj law case involving their varna in 1926 determined them to be Kshatriya.[61]

Earlier, in Bihar, in 1811–1812, botanist and zoologist Francis Buchanan had recorded the Kayastha of that region as "pure shudra" and accordingly kept them at the par with other producer caste groups like goldsmiths, Ahirs, Kurmis and the Koeris. William Pinch, in his study of Ramanandi Sampradaya in the north describes the emergence of the concept of "pure Shudra" in growing need of physical contact with some of the low caste groups who were producer and seller of essential commodities or were the provider of services without which the self sufficiency of rural society couldn't persist. However, many of these adopted Vaishnavism in the aim to become Kshatriya. In 1901 Bihar census, Kayasthas of the area were classified along with Brahmins and Rajputs in Bihar as "other castes of twice-born rank"[63] According to Arun Sinha, there was a strong current since the end of the 19th century among Shudras of Bihar to change their status in caste hierarchy and break the monopoly of bipolar elite of Brahmins and Rajputs of having "dvija" status. The education and economic advancement made by some of the former Shudra castes enabled them to seek the higher prestige and varna status. The Kayastha along with the Bhumihars were first among the shudras to attain the recognition as "upper caste" leaving the other aspirational castes to aspire for the same.[64]

The Raj era rulings were based largely upon the theories of Herbert Hope Risley, who had conducted extensive studies on castes and tribes of the Bengal Presidency. According to William Rowe, the Kayasthas of Bengal, Bombay and the United Provinces repeatedly challenged this classification by producing a flood of books, pamphlets, family histories and journals to pressurise the government to recognise them as kshatriya and to reform the caste practices in the directions of sanskritisation and westernisation.[65]Template:Clarify Rowe's opinion has been challenged, with arguments that it is based on "factual and interpretative errors", and criticised for making "unquestioned assumptions" about the Kayastha Sanskritisation and westernisation movement.[66][67]

In post-Raj assessments, the Bengali Kayasthas, alongside Bengali Brahmins, have been described as the "highest Hindu castes".[68] After the Muslim conquest of India, they absorbed remnants of Bengal's old Hindu ruling dynastiesTemplate:Mdashincluding the Sena, Pala, Chandra, and VarmanTemplate:Mdashand, in this way, became the region's surrogate kshatriya or "warrior" class. During British rule, the Bengali Kayasthas, the Bengali Brahmins and the Baidyas considered themselves to be Bhadralok, a term coined in Bengal for the gentry or respectable people. This was based on their perceived refined culture, prestige and education.[33][69]

According to Christian Novetzke, in medieval India, Kayastha in certain parts were considered either as Brahmins or equal to Brahmins.[70] Several religious councils and institutions have subsequently stated the varna status of CKPs as Kshatriya.[71][72][73]

Notable people

Template:More citations needed section This is a list of notable people from all the subgroups of Kayasthas.

President of India

Prime Minister of India

Chief Ministers

Others

See also

References

  1. ↑ KAYASTHAS AND KARANAS IN ORISSA—A STUDY ON INSCRIPTIONS—. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress({Template:Date).
  2. ↑ Jati Formation in Early Medieval Orissa: Reflection on Karana (Kayastha Caste). Proceedings of the Indian History Congress({Template:Date).
  3. ↑ India today : An encyclopedia of life in the republic. Vol. 1, A–K{{#if:Imam|, Imam}. ABC-CLIO(2011). ISBN 978-0-313-37463-0
  4. ↑ Encyclopedia of India{{#if:Leonard|, Leonard}. Charles Scribner's Sons(2006). ISBN 0-684-31349-9
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 From the 'lekhaka' to the Kāyastha: Scribes in Early Historic Court and Society (200 BCE–200 CE). Proceedings of the Indian History Congress({Template:Date).
  6. ↑ The writers' class of ancient India—a case study in social mobility. The Indian Economic & Social History Review({Template:Date).
  7. ↑ The Hindustani Kayasthas: The Kayastha Pathshala, and the Kayastha Conference, 1873–1914{{#if:Stout|, Stout}. University of California, Berkeley(1976)
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  9. ↑ Tibetan renaissance : Tantric Buddhism in the rebirth of Tibetan culture{{#if:Davidson|, Davidson}. Columbia University Press(2005). ISBN 978-0-231-50889-6
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  12. ↑ The Great Indian Middle class{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Penguin Books(2007). ISBN 9780143103257
  13. ↑ Region and nation in India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford & IBH Pub. Co.(1985)
  14. ↑ D. L. Sheth.
  15. ↑ Kayastha. Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  16. ↑ Medieval Indian mindscapes : space, time, society, man{{#if:Vanina|, Vanina}. Primus Books(2012). ISBN 978-93-80607-19-1
  17. ↑ Self Legitimation and Social Primacy: A Case Study of Some Kayastha Inscriptions From Central India. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress({Template:Year).
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 The Formation of the Colonial State in India: Scribes, Paper and Taxes, 1760–1860{{#if:Bellenoit|, Bellenoit}. Routledge(2017). ISBN 9781134494361
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  22. ↑ The writers' class of ancient India— a case study in social mobility. The Indian Economic & Social History Review({Template:Date).
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  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Islam in Bangladesh{{#if:Banu|, Banu}. Brill Academic Publishers(1992). ISBN 978-90-04-09497-0
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  29. ↑ History and Culture of the Indian People{{#if:Majumdar|, Majumdar}. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan(2001)
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  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 GLEANINGS FROM THE UDAYASUNDARĪ-KATHĀ. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute({Template:Date).
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  36. ↑ Visakhadattaʼs Mudraraksasa{{#if:Deshpande|, Deshpande}. Popular book Store, Surat(1948)
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  38. ↑ Kalhana's Rajatarangini: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers(1989). ISBN 978-81-20-80370-1
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  51. ↑ India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic : L-Z, Volume 2{{#if:Imam|, Imam}. ABC-CLIO(2011). ISBN 9780313374623
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  53. ↑ Self Legitimation and Social Primacy: A Case Study of Some Kayastha Inscriptions From Central India. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress({Template:Year).
  54. ↑ The Formation of the Colonial State in India: Scribes, Paper and Taxes, 1760–1860{{#if:Bellenoit|, Bellenoit}. Taylor & Francis(2017). ISBN 978-1-134-49429-3
  55. ↑ Rural Society and Rural Economy in the Ganga Valley during the Gahadavalas. Social Scientist({Template:Year).
  56. ↑ The formation of the colonial state in India: Scribes, paper and taxes, 1760–1860{{#if:Bellenoit|, Bellenoit}(2017). ISBN 978-1-134-49429-3
  57. ↑ Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Volume 1{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Brill Academic Publishers(1991). ISBN 978-90-04-09509-0
  58. ↑ Ancient Indian Ports: With Special Reference to Maharashtra{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers(2001). ISBN 978-81-215-0858-2
  59. ↑ Nineteenth Century History of Maharashtra: 1818–1857{{#if:Sunthankar|, Sunthankar}(1988)
  60. ↑ Religion and Society in Maharashtra{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Center for South Asian Studies, University of Toronto, Canada(1987)
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  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar{{#if:Kumar|, Kumar}. Anthem Press(2008)
  63. ↑ Peasants and monks in British India{{#if:Pinch|, Pinch}. University of California Press(1996). ISBN 978-0-520-20061-6
  64. ↑ Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar{{#if:Sinha|, Sinha}. Viking(2011). ISBN 978-0-670-08459-3
  65. ↑ Structure and Change in India Society{{#if:Rowe|, Rowe}. Transaction Publishers(2007). ISBN 978-0-202-36138-3
  66. ↑ Caste conflict and elite formation: The rise of a Karāva elite in Sri Lanka, 1500-1931{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(1982). ISBN 978-0521052856
  67. ↑ The Hindustani Kayasthas: The Kayastha Pathshala, and the Kayastha Conference, 1873–1914{{#if:Stout|, Stout}. University of California, Berkeley(1976)
  68. ↑ Marriage and Rank in Bengali Culture: A History of Caste and Clan in Middle Period Bengal{{#if:Inden|, Inden}. University of California Press(1976). ISBN 978-0-520-02569-1
  69. ↑ Tamil Brahmans: The making of a middle caste{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. University of Chicago Press(2014). ISBN 9780226152882
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  71. ↑ The Castes, Tribes and Culture of India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. ESS Publications(1981)
  72. ↑ Education: readings in the processes of cultural transmission{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Houghton Mifflin(1970)
  73. ↑ Society and Politics in India: Essays in a Comparative Perspective{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(1992). ISBN 0195630661
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  77. ↑ Science and the Indian Tradition: When Einstein Met Tagore{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}(2007)
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  79. ↑ Indian Travels of Thevenot and Careri: Being the Third Part of the Travels of M. de Thevenot into the Levant and the Third Part of a Voyage Round the World by Dr. John Francis Gemelli Careri{{#if:Sen|, Sen}(1949)
  80. ↑ Select Documents on the Ghadr Party{{#if:Sareen|, Sareen}. Mounto Publishing House(1994)
  81. ↑ South Asian intellectuals and social change: a study of the role of vernacular-speaking intelligentsia{{#if:Malik|, Malik}. Heritage(1981)
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of the Shivaji Maharaj's Swarajya. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute({Template:Date).
  83. ↑ Jayaprakash Narayan: A Centenary Volume{{#if:Das|, Das}. Mittal Publications(2005). ISBN 978-81-8324-001-7
  84. ↑ Encyclopedia of Indian War of Independence (1857–1947){{#if:Singh|, Singh}. Anmol Publications(2009)
  85. ↑ Religion and Society in Maharashtra{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Center for South Asian Studies, University of Toronto, Canada(1987)
  86. ↑ Devdutt Pattanaik: Descendants of Chitragupta. mid-day(18 February 2018). Retrieved 17 March 2020.
  87. ↑ Makers of Indian Literature: Prem Chand{{#if:Gupta|, Gupta}. Sahitya Akademi(1998). ISBN 978-81-260-0428-7
  88. ↑ Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Anthem Press(2008). ISBN 978-1-84331-709-8
  89. ↑ Mahadevi Varma and the Chhayavad Age of Modern Hindi Poetry{{#if:Schomer|, Schomer}. Oxford University Press(1998). ISBN 0-19-564450-6
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  92. ↑ Sananda Lal Ghosh,(1980), Mejda, Self-Realization Fellowship, p. 3

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Further reading

  • The tribes and castes of West Bengal{{#if:Mitra (Indian Civil Service, Superintendent of Census Operations)|, Mitra (Indian Civil Service, Superintendent of Census Operations)}. Superintendent, Govt. Print. West Bengal Govt. Press(1953)
  • Social History of an Indian Caste: The Kayasths of Hyderabad{{#if:Leonard|, Leonard}. Orient BlackSwan(1994). ISBN 978-81-250-0032-7

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