Kaveri

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About: the river




Template:Infobox river The Kaveri (anglicized as Cauvery),Template:Efn also known as Ponni (Template:IPA),[1][2] is a major river flowing across Southern India. It is the third largest river in the region after Godavari and Krishna. The catchment area of the Kaveri basin is estimated to be Template:Cvt and encompasses the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and the union territory of Puducherry.

The river rises at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats. The source is located at an elevation of Template:Cvt in the Kodagu district of Karnataka. The river flows for about Template:Cvt through the Deccan Plateau in Karnataka before entering Tamil Nadu. It flows further eastward in Tamil Nadu for Template:Cvt before flowing into the Bay of Bengal near Poompuhar in Mayiladuthurai district of Tamil Nadu. The river flows for a total length of about Template:Cvt. The major tributaries include Amaravati, Arkavati, Bhavani, Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Lakshmana Tirtha, Shimsha and Noyyal.

There are a number of dams on the river which form part of an extensive irrigation system and are used for the generation of hydroelectric power. The river has supported agriculture for centuries and has served as the lifeline of several kingdoms in the past. Access to the river's waters has been a cause of dispute among the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for decades. The Kaveri basin is a densely populated region, with several towns and cities located on its banks.

The river is considered as sacred by the people of Southern India and is considered to be among the seven holy rivers of India. The river is often personified and worshiped as the goddess Kaveri. The river is mentioned in various Hindu religious texts including the Mahabharata and the Puranas. In ancient Tamil literature, the river is referenced to as Ponni meaning "the golden one".

Etymology

Kaveri is mentioned in Sanskrit as a holy river in various Hindu religious texts including the Mahabharata and the Puranas.[3] The name itself might have had different etymologies. As per Skanda Purana, the river arose after Ganesha took a form of a crow and toppled sage Agastya's kamandala. The river then took its name from the Tamil language words kā meaning "crow" and viri meaning "spread" literally translating to "spread by a crow". It might also mean a river with wide spread banks as viri can also be translated as wide spread.[3][4][5][6] The etymology of the river might have also been derived from kāviri, the Sankethi word for "river" from the language spoken by the Sankethi people, who live along its waters.[7] Cauvery is the anglicized version of the original name.[6]

The river is also known by other names. In ancient Tamil literature, the river was called Ponni meaning "the golden one" in reference to the fine silt it deposits.[4][8][9][10] It is known as Daksina gaṅgā meaning the "Ganges of the South" indicating its geographical location and its significance.[11] It is also mentioned as Ardha gaṅgā meaning Half Ganga in Mahabharata and other literature, due to its purported mythology of having arisen from the Ganges.[3] Marudvṛdhā is another hypothesised name for this river, meaning "the beloved of the Maruts" in Sanskrit.[12]

Course

The river arises at Talakaveri in Kodagu district of Karnataka.[13] The source of the river is located at an altitude of Template:Cvt in the Brahmagiri Hills of the Western Ghats.[14] Its follows a rough upper course consisting of rocky beds and high banks. Once it leaves the Kodagu hills, it flows eastwards and forms a series of rapids and falls. It flows through a narrow gorge onto the Deccan Plateau and drops about Template:Cvt at Chunchanakatte Falls.[11] The river forms the island of Srirangapatna and widens to Template:Cvt before flowing south-east.[11][13] At Shivanasamudra, the river drops Template:Cvt and forms the Shivanasamudra Falls, one of the largest waterfalls in the country.[14][13] After forming the island of Shivanasamudra, the river converges and passes through the Mekedatu gorge.[14][15] After flowing for Template:Cvt in Karnataka, the river flows for about Template:Cvt along the Karnataka-Tamil Nadu border.[14]

The river enters Tamil Nadu and forms the Hogenakkal Falls.[13] After the falls, the river flows southwards towards Mettur Dam and joins its main right bank tributary Bhavani at Kooduthurai.[14][15] The river flows eastwards through Erode and Karur, and widens further before entering the Tiruchirappalli district. It splits into two branches with the northern part called as Kollidam River and the southern part of the river retaining the name Kaveri.[14] After flowing for Template:Cvt, the two branches converge around the Srirangam island.[14][15] The river further branches off into 36 different channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal near Poompuhar in Mayiladuthurai district.[16] The river traverses for about Template:Cvt in Tamil Nadu for a total length of about Template:Cvt.[14]

Tributaries

The Kaveri River has 21 major tributaries.[14] The largest tributary Hemavati, and Lakshmana Tirtha join the river at Krishna Raja Sagara.[14][11] Kabini is another major contributor to the flow of Kaveri and joins the river in Karnataka. It meets with its second largest tributary Bhavani at Kooduthurai in Bhavani and two other tributaries Noyyal, and Amaravati join further down the stream in Tamil Nadu.[14] Other tributaries of Kaveri include Shimsha, Arkavati, Sarabanga, and Thirumanimutharu.[14][15]

Discharge

Source:[17][18]

Discharge
Year Grand Anicut Lower Anicut
(m3/s) (m3/s)
Min Mean Max Min Mean Max
1998 170 1,099 3,454 161 885 2,540
1999 289 1,131 3,778 285 864 2,845
2000 343 1,287 4,903 233 1,011 3,335
2001 258 1,080 3,348 309 948 3,115
2002 139 772 2,392 144 867 2,423
2003 78 667 2,297 216 646 2,100
2004 103 895 3,303 217 839 3,160
2005 179 1,012 3,354 240 991 3,873
2006 268 1,072 2,495 473 1,091 3,187
2007 118 993 3,308 324 1,126 4,075
2008 132 1,094 3,677 398 1,103 3,167
2009 227 1,040 3,238 290 965 3,301
2010 373 1,080 3,141 411 1,022 3,626
2011 171 1,163 3,815 296 928 3,014
2012 190 874 3,342 177 711 2,149
2013 82 1,043 3,281 229 856 3,127
2014 279 1,148 3,663 409 980 2,533
2015 559 1,422 3,816 407 913 2,177
2016 490 1,129 2,890 276 728 1,733
2017 216 931 3,586 154 671 1,832
2018 341 1,571 4,439 266 934 3,427
2019 331 1,473 4,559 173 966 3,070
2020 591 1,590 4,373 209 983 2,944
2021 478 1,502 3,935 257 988 3,136
2022 548 1,713 4,916 407 1,172 3,385
Overall 78 1,151 4,916 144 928 4,075

Geology and ecology

File:Kaveri Crater visualization.png
The location of the supposed impact structure (red circle) surrounded by hills within the Deccan peninsula

The Kaveri basin was formed in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period during Gondwana breakup and opening of the Indian Ocean.[19] Most of the basin is made up of Precambrian rocks and the two major rock types that are found are metamorphic and igneous rocks.[15] Closepet granite is found in the upper parts of the Kaveri basin and Charnockite rocks are only found in the central part.[13] A 2017 paper proposed that an impact structure was present in the vicinity of the Kaveri river.[20] The run-off from the river does not drain off quickly because of the shape of the river basin, which limits the occurrence of floods. It is a perennial river fed mostly by monsoons. Four distinct seasons occur in the basin with hot and cold seasons sandwiching the monsoon seasons. The river basin is fed by South-West monsoon in Karnataka, and North-East monsoon in Tamil Nadu.[14]

As per a government report from 2014-15, the dissolved salt load generated in the Kaveri basin is nearly 3.5 million metric tons annually with an estimated salinity is 441 ppm, close to the safe maximum permissible 500 ppm.[21][22][23] The population in the river basin, which was estimated to have reached 40 million in 2015, led to an increased per capita consumption of inorganic salts.[24][25] When adequate salt export from the river basin is not taking place to the sea, the water quality would deteriorate beyond the permissible limits impeding its sustainable productivity and the ecosystem.[26][27][28]

The Kaveri basin is made up of two sub-zones, forest and agro-ecosystem.[29] The forest vegetation consists of a mix of dry deciduous, evergreen forests, and grasslands.[30] As per a study, about Template:Cvt of natural vegetation was lost in the river basin between 1965 and 2016.[31] The basin has a variety of flora with major species including Terminalia arjuna, Tamarindus indica, Pongamia pinnata, Salix tetrasperma, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Eucalyptus torticornis, and Diospyros montana.[29]

There are many protected areas spread across the river basin including significant tiger and elephant habitats. The basin provides habitat to a range of animal species such as gaur, leopard, sloth bear, Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, Nilgiri tahr, grizzled giant squirrel, and various species of deer, wild boar and reptiles.[30] The river also hosts a variety of avifauna including the painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala), spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), and black-headed ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus). It is also home to the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), and hump-backed mahseer (Tor remadevii).[32]

Riparian zone

File:Water Catchment Area of Stanley reservoir.jpg
Stanley Reservoir formed by Mettur Dam, the largest dams on the river.

The total watershed of the basin is Template:Cvt and the riparian zone of the river consists of Template:Cvt in Tamil Nadu, Template:Cvt in Karnataka, Template:Cvt in Kerala, and Template:Cvt in the union territory of Puducherry.[33][14] Over half of the Kaveri basin is arable and the most cultivated crops are rice and sugarcane.[29] An estimate at the time of the first Five Year Plan put the total flow of the river at Template:Convert, of which 60% was used for irrigation.[34] The river is also used for drinking water and hydroelectric power generation.[11][35]

The Grand Anicut was constructed by a Chola King in 2nd century CE.[14] The hydroelectric plant built on the Sivanasamudra Falls in 1902 was the first hydroelectric plant in Asia.[36] The Mettur Dam in Tamil Nadu was constructed in 1934 and the Stanley Reservoir formed by the dam has a capacity of 93.4 tmc ft.[11][37] Krishna Raja Sagara in Karnataka is the second largest dam on the river and has a capacity of 49.5 tmc ft.[37][38] Bhavanisagar Dam (32.8 tmc ft) on the Bhavani River in Tamil Nadu, Gorur dam (37.1 tmc ft) on the Hemavathi River, Kabini Dam (18.5 tmc ft) on the Kabini River, and Harangi Dam (9.5 tmc ft) on the Harangi River in Karnataka are major dams on the tributaries of Kaveri.[33][37]

Water dispute

File:Kaveri basin Map.pdf
Kaveri basin

Template:Further

The dispute over the sharing of Kaveri waters began in 1807 when the Madras Presidency objected to the plans of the Mysore kingdom to develop irrigation projects. After initial discussions failed, the British Raj intervened and a six rule agreement called the General Agreement of 1892 was signed.[39] The agreement was revised in 1924, with a validity of fifty years. After the expiry of the 1924 agreement in 1974, Karnataka demanded a renegotiation and its due share of water from the river while Tamil Nadu favored an extension of the agreement.[40][41][42] After Indian Independence, article 262 of the Constitution of India provided powers to the Government of India to adjudicate on inter-state disputes on water sharing.[43] The union government constituted the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) on 2 June 1990, based on the order of the Supreme Court of India, to adjudicate the water dispute between the riparian states and territories in the river basin. The tribunal gave an interim award on 25 June 1991 that was based on its 10-year calculation of average inflow of water from Karnataka into Tamil Nadu.[40][42] In the order passed on 25 June 1991, the CWDT directed Karnataka to release 205 tmcft of water per year to Tamil Nadu based on a specific schedule. The water was to be released in four equal installments in a particular month and any shortfall would need to be covered in the subsequent week. Tamil Nadu was directed to provide 6 tmcft of water to Puducherry.[33]

In July 1991, the president asked the Supreme Court to rule on the validity and legality of the tribunal under the Constitution. In November 1991, the Supreme Court opined that the order needs to be published by the central government in the official gazette, which was done on 1 December 1991.[33] In May 1992, the Government of Tamil Nadu filed a case in the Supreme Court to direct the union government to pass necessary orders to ensure the implementation of the provisions of the tribunal order. In April 1997, the attorney general reverted that the central government has prepared a scheme under the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956 for the implementation of the tribunal award and the Cauvery Water Authority (CRA) and Cauvery Monitoring Committee (CMC) were formed subsequently as a part of the Cauvery Water (Implementation of Interim Orders of 1991 and all subsequent Tribunal Orders) Scheme, 1998. The CRA is headed by the prime minister and consists of the chief ministers of the riparian states as its constituent members.[33]

The dispute arose periodically such as in 1995 and 2002, when poor monsoon led to lower water levels.[42] This led to instances where the Supreme Court and the CRA had to intervene, and had led to instances of violence, arson, and protests in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.[44][45] The CWDT announced its final verdict on 5 February 2007. According to its verdict, Tamil Nadu was awared 419 tmcft of the Kaveri river waters while Karnataka got 270 tmcft, with Kerala and Puducherry getting 30 tmcft and 7 tmcft respectively. It also laid down the terms for monthly release of water from Karnataka to Tamil Nadu.[46][47]

After further disputes in 2012, and the intervention of the Supreme Court,[48] the Indian Government notified the final award in the gazette on 20 February 2013.[46][49] However, after further disputes in 2016,[50] and further appeals by the concerned states, the Supreme Court ruled on 16 February 2018, that Karnataka will get 284.75 tmcft, Tamil Nadu will get 404.25 tmcft, Kerala will get 30 tmcft and Puducherry will get 7 tmcft of water from the river basin. An additional 10 tmcft was reserved for environmental protection and 4 tmcft was reserved for wastage into the sea.[51] The court directed the government to form a Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) within six weeks and acting on the Supreme Court's direction, the central government constituted the CMWA in June 2018.[52][53][54]

Religious significance

File:Arulmigu Rajamariamman Devasthanam, JB (2025) - img 48 (cropped).jpg
A depiction of Agastya creating the Kaveri with Ganesha, at a Kovil in Johor Bahru, Malaysia

In Hinduism, the river is considered one of seven holy rivers in India. The river is personified and worshiped as the river goddess Kaveri Amma.[3][55] Kaveri is mentioned as both a river and a goddess in various Hindu texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The river is mentioned as one of the seven holy Gangas and bathing in the river is said to grant one's desired as per the Sivapurana. The Varaha Purana states that the river flows from the five great mountains and gives longevity to those who drink the waters of the river. The Skanda Purana narrates the various origins of the river. Shiva filled Agastya's bowl with Kaveri, who flowed as a river with the help of Ganesha.[3][4]

In another legend, Lopamudra becomes Agastya's wife and takes on a form of water during a severe drought in South India. Agastya carries her in his small brass water pot and Ganesha, in the form of crow, knocks the water pot down. The spilled water runs down the hill and onto the drought-stricken land.[56] Another story narrates that during the Samudra Manthana, or churning of the Ocean of Milk, Mohini and Lopamudra retrieved the nectar of immortality for the gods. Afterwards, Brahma took care of Lopamudra as his daughter and later offered her to king Kavera, who renamed her as Kaveri. When Kaveri grew up she prayed to Brahma to transform her into a purifying river.[55]

As per the Tamil literature Manimekalai, Agastya drank the Ganges River in anger, when the floods destroyed his tapas and later released it in South India. Silapathikaram mentions Kaveri as the daughter of Kavera. In Theravada Buddhism, Kaveri is mentioned as a water channel. It is part of the twenty canal-systems associated with the reservoir Parakkamasamudda that existed in the Polonnaruwa region during the reign of king Parakramabahu I.[3]

Kaveri Pushkaram is a Hindu festival dedicated to the river.[57] It is generally observed once every 12 years,[57] with a "Maha Pushkaram" held every 144 years.[58][59] The key pilgrimage sites includes Srirangam and Thula Kattam at Mayiladuthurai near the mouth of the river.[58][59] The festival is celebrated for 12 days, and includes ceremonial observations such as homam, yagnam, chanting of the Vedas, ritual feeding, and tharpanam accompanied by cultural activities such as music, dance, and spiritual speeches.[59]

See also

Notes

Template:Notelist

References

  1. ↑ Journal of the Madras Geographical Association{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Indian Geographical Society(1938)
  2. ↑ South India Heritage: An Introduction{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. East West Books(2007). ISBN 978-8-18866-164-0
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Kaveri. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Kandha Puranam{{#if:Civarāman̲|, Civarāman̲}. GIRI Trading(1900). ISBN 978-8-17950-397-3
  5. ↑ River Kaveri Story(9 September 2021). Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Cauvery flows, thanks to a crow!(4 January 2024). Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  7. ↑ How the Rivers of India Descended From the Heavens: Kaveri(5 November 2022). Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  8. ↑ Daughter of Ponni(27 April 2014). Retrieved 27 April 2014.
  9. ↑ Cauvery Chronicles II: Ponni's Perish(8 February 2020). Retrieved 8 February 2020.
  10. ↑ The death of a river(11 June 2019). Retrieved 11 June 2019.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Template:Cite encyclopedia
  12. ↑ Marudvṛdhā. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Hydrology and Water Resources of India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Springer Science(2007). ISBN 9781402051807
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Data
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 The Indian rivers : scientific and socio-economic aspects{{#if:Singh|, Singh}. Springer Science(2018)
  16. ↑ Environmental Management of River Basin Ecosystems{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Springer Science(2015). ISBN 978-3-319-13425-3
  17. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Discharge1
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Discharge2
  19. ↑ Major geologic events of the Cauvery Basin, India and their correlation with global signatures – A review. Journal of Palaeogeography({Template:Date).
  20. ↑ Kaveri crater – An impact structure in the Precambrian terrain of southern India. Journal of the Geological Society of India({Template:Date).
  21. ↑ Water Quality Database of Indian rivers. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  22. ↑ Murray–Darling River Basin – Assessment of the salt export objective and salinity targets for flow management 2014–15. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  23. ↑ Conductivity units converter. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  24. ↑ Template:Cite report
  25. ↑ Soon, We May Not Have a Cauvery River to Fight Over. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
  26. ↑ River basin development phases and implications of closure(January 1998). Retrieved 25 September 2020.
  27. ↑ The new era of water resources management – From 'dry' to 'wet' water savings. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
  28. ↑ Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Riparian vegetation assessment of Cauvery River Basin of South India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment({Template:Date).
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Template:Cite report
  31. ↑ Natural vegetation on nearly 12,850 sq. km in the Cauvery basin has been lost, says a research paper. The Hindu(11 December 2023). Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  32. ↑ Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Riparian
  34. ↑ Chapter 26: Irrigation and power. Planning Commission of India. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
  35. ↑ Archived copy. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  36. ↑ World Waterfall Database. Retrieved 9 November 2006.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Reservoir levels. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  38. ↑ Corporation urged to chalk out water policy for Mysore city. The Hindu(26 March 2006).
  39. ↑ Historical Background Of The Cauvery Water Dispute. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress({Template:Date).
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Inter-state Water Disputes in India: Constitutional and Statutory Provisions and Settlement Machinery{{#if:Rao|, Rao}. Deep & Deep Publications(1998). ISBN 978-8-176-29159-0
  41. ↑ Federalism and Inter-State River Water Disputes in India{{#if:Ranjan|, Ranjan}. Taylor & Francis(2023). ISBN 978-1-00088-728-0
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Water: Perspectives, Issues, Concerns{{#if:Iyer|, Iyer}. SAGE Publications(2003). ISBN 978-0-761-99759-7
  43. ↑ Article 262 of Indian Constitution. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  44. ↑ Karnataka erupts over SC order on Cauvery. The Hindu. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  45. ↑ Cauvery Water Dispute: Second death in Karnataka, over 300 held. The Indian Express. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Cauvery water disputes tribunal award.
  47. ↑ Tamil Nadu wins the Cauvery water battle. The Economic Times(5 February 2007).
  48. ↑ Release 10,000 cusecs till Sunday, Karnataka told. The Hindu(6 December 2012). Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  49. ↑ Centre notifies Cauvery Tribunal final award. The Hindu(20 February 2013). Retrieved 20 February 2013.
  50. ↑ Cauvery water only for drinking needs. The Indian Express. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  51. ↑ Archived copy. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  52. ↑ Supreme Court curtails Tamil Nadu's share of Cauvery water. The Hindu(16 February 2018). Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  53. ↑ Cauvery Water Management Scheme, 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  54. ↑ Cauvery dispute(23 June 2018). Retrieved 1 June 2020.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Kamandalu: The Seven Sacred Rivers of Hinduism{{#if:Warrier|, Warrier}. Mayur University(2014). ISBN 978-0-95356-797-3
  56. ↑ India: A Sacred Geography{{#if:Eck|, Eck}. Harmony Books(2012). ISBN 978-0-385-53191-7
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Cauvery Pushkaram: Celebration of rivers(19 September 2019). Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Kaveri Maha Pushkaram 2017 Celebration in Srirangam and Mayiladuthurai: Tamil Nadu Set for Holy Festival along Cauvery(12 September 2017). Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Mayiladuthurai ready for Cauvery Maha Pushkaram. The Hindu(11 September 2017). Retrieved 1 June 2024.

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