Kashmiris

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Template:Infobox ethnic group Kashmiri people (Template:IPA) are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group[1] speaking the Kashmiri language and originating from the Kashmir Valley in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir.

Ruling history

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The earliest known Neolithic sites in the Kashmir Valley are from around 3000 BCE, of which Burzahom is the most significant. These sites provide evidence of early human settlement, including dwellings, tools and domesticated animals. Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn During the later Vedic period, the Uttara–Kurus tribe settled in Kashmir.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

During the Ashoka reign (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became part of the Maurya Empire and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar) was built.Template:Sfn Kashmir was later conquered by Kanishka, an emperor from the Kushan dynasty.Template:Sfn In the eighth century, during the Karkota Empire, Kashmir grew as an imperial power.Template:Sfn Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and conquered the eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kalinga, he also defeated the Arabs in Sindh.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Later came the Utpala dynasty, founded by Avantivarman, which was followed by the Karkotas dynasty.Template:Sfn In the latter half of the 10th century, Queen Didda, a descendant of the Hindu Shahis of Udabhandapura on her mother's side, took over as ruler.Template:Sfn After her death in 1003 CE, the Lohara dynasty ruled the region.Template:Sfn

In 1339, Shah Mir became the ruler of Kashmir, establishing the Shah Mir dynasty, which brought Islam to the Kashmir region. From 1586 to 1751, the Mughal Empire ruled Kashmir, followed by the Afghan Durrani Empire which ruled from 1747 until 1819. The Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir in 1819. In 1846, after the First Anglo-Sikh War, the Treaty of Lahore was signed and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the King of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became ruler of Kashmir. Thereafter, the Dogra dynasty ruled under the British Crown until 1947, when the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir joined India.

Kashmir is currently a disputed territory, administered by three countries, India, Pakistan, and China.

Geographic distribution

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There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India.[2] Most Kashmiris are located in the Kashmir Valley, Chenab Valley and other areas of Jammu and Kashmir.[3] In the Kashmir valley, they form an absolute majority with a slight majority in the Chenab Valley region.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five per cent of Azad Kashmir's population.[4] According to the 1998 Pakistan Census, there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir.[5] Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir,[6][7] particularly in the districts of Muzaffarabad (15%), Neelam (20%) and Hattian (15%), with very small minorities in Haveli (5%) and Bagh (2%).[5] The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is distinct from, although still intelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north.[7] In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue.[7] The Kashmiri dialect of Neelam is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularly Kupwara.[7] At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.[8][9]

A process of language shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguist Tariq Rahman, as they gradually adopt local dialects such as Pahari-Pothwari, Hindko or move towards the lingua franca Urdu.[10][6][11][7] This has resulted in these languages being used more than Kashmiri.[12][13] There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims have seen as their identity symbol.[14] Rahman notes that efforts to organise a Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir.[14]

Language

The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.[15] It was a part of the eighth Schedule in the former Constitution of the Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state.[16] Template:Multiple image Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th century, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during the Dogra rule.[17][18] In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time.[19][20][21]

Kashmiri is closely related to Poguli and Kishtwari, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.

Krams (surnames)

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File:Kashmir-hindu-priests.jpg
Kashmiri Hindu priests in the 1890s

Kashmiri Hindus are Saraswat Brahmins and are known by the exonym Pandit.[22] The Muslims living in Kashmir are of the same stock as the Kashmiri Pandit community and are designated as Kashmiri Muslims.[23] Kashmiri Muslims are descended from Kashmiri Hindus who converted to Islam, and Kashmiri Pandits are the predecessors of the Kashmiri Muslims,[24] who now form the majority population in the Kashmir Valley[25][26] Both the Kashmiri Hindus and Muslim society reckons descent patrilineally. Certain property and titles may be inherited through the male line, but certain inheritances may accrue through the female line. After Kashmiri Hindus converted to Islam they largely retained their family names (kram) which indicated their original profession, locality or community.[22] These include:

Culture

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File:The Great Kashmiri Salt tea.png
Kashmiri Samovar and Noon Chai

Music

Template:Main The traditional types of music of Kashmir are Sufi Kalam, Wanvun, Chakri, Henzae, and Ladishah.

Some of the musical instruments used in Kashmir are Rubab, Tumbaknaer (which is of Iranian origin) and Santoor.

A traditional dance form usually performed by women on occasions like marriages and similar social functions is Rouf.[43]

Cuisine

Template:Main Meat and rice are popular food items among Kashmiris, rice being considered a staple food.[44][45]

Noon Chai or Sheer Chai and Kahweh are beverages of Kashmir.

Wazwan is a multi-course meal in Kashmir prepared by skilled chefs called Wazas.

Kashmir is also known for its baking traditions. Sheermal, Bakarkhani (puff pastry), Lavas (unleavened bread), Tsochwor (hard, bagel-shaped bread) and Kulche are popular baked goods.[46]

See also

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Notes

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References

  1. ↑ Jammu and Kashmir{{#if:Gupta|, Gupta}. Springer(6 December 2012). ISBN 978-94-011-9231-6
  2. ↑ Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2018. The precise figures from the 2011 census are 6,554,36 for Kashmiri as a "mother tongue" and 6,797,587 for Kashmiri as a "language" (which includes closely related smaller dialects/languages).
  3. ↑ Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri. Kashmir News Network: Language Section (koshur.org). Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  4. ↑ The other Kashmir. The Hindu(14 June 2011). Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Languages of Erstwhile State of Jammu Kashmir (A Preliminary Study). University of Azad Jammu and Kahsmir({Template:Date).
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 The Dying Linguistic Heritage of the Kashmiris: Kashmiri Literary Culture and Language, Kachru, Braj B.(3 July 2002). Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 The Languages of the Neelam Valley. Kashmir Journal of Language Research({Template:Date).
  8. ↑ CCI defers approval of census results until elections, Kiani, Khaleeq. DAWN.COM(28 May 2018). Retrieved 17 March 2020.
  9. ↑ Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris{{#if:Snedden|, Snedden}. Oxford University Press(15 September 2015). ISBN 978-1-84904-622-0
  10. ↑ Kashmir and Template:As written People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society{{#if:Kaw|, Kaw}. APH Publishing(2004). ISBN 978-81-7648-537-1
  11. ↑ The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia: A Comprehensive Guide{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG(24 May 2016). ISBN 978-3-11-042338-9
  12. ↑ Up north: Call for exploration of archaeological sites. The Express Tribune(4 June 2015). Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  13. ↑ Lack of preservation causing regional languages to die a slow death. The Express Tribune(20 February 2016). Retrieved 25 October 2020.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Language and politics in Pakistan{{#if:Rahman|, Rahman}. Oxford University Press(1996). ISBN 978-0-19-577692-8
  15. ↑ Scheduled Languages of India. Central Institute of Indian Languages. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  16. ↑ The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir (India). General Administrative Department of the Government of Jammu & Kashmir (India). Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  17. ↑ kashmir iii. Persian language in the state administration, Weber, Siegfried. Encyclopaedia Iranica(1 May 2012). Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  18. ↑ The Changing Language Roles and Linguistic Identities of the Kashmiri speech community{{#if:Bhat|, Bhat}. Cambridge Scholars Publishing(2017). ISBN 978-1-4438-6260-8
  19. ↑ The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020. The Gazette of India(27 September 2020). Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  20. ↑ Parliament passes JK Official Languages Bill, 2020. Rising Kashmir(23 September 2020). Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  21. ↑ BJP president congratulates J-K people on passing of Jammu and Kashmir Official Language Bill 2020, ANI. BW Businessworld. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Disappearing Peoples?: Indigenous Groups and Ethnic Minorities in South and Central Asia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2016). ISBN 978-1-315-43039-3
  23. ↑ Census of India, 1941{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}
  24. ↑ Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. APH Publishing(2001). ISBN 978-81-7648-236-3
  25. ↑ A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir. Journal of Human Ecology({Template:Year).
  26. ↑ A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir. Journal of Human Ecology({Template:Year).
  27. ↑ The Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India, Volume 52{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. The Survey(2003)
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Explore Kashmiri Pandits{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Dharma Publications. ISBN 978-0-9634798-6-0
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Disappearing Peoples?: Indigenous Groups and Ethnic Minorities in South and Central Asia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2016). ISBN 978-1-315-43039-3
  30. ↑ 30.00 30.01 30.02 30.03 30.04 30.05 30.06 30.07 30.08 30.09 Proceedings - Indian History Congress, Volume 63{{#if:|, }. Indian History Congress(2003)
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 31.6 31.7 31.8 Kashmir: Exposing the Myth Behind the Narrative{{#if:Ahmad|, Ahmad}. SAGE Publishing(23 June 2017). ISBN 978-93-86062-81-9
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Greenwood Press(2006). ISBN 978-0-313-32849-7
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Social Distribution of Linguistic Variants in Kashmiri Speech. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute({Template:Date).
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Kashmiryat in Kashmiri surnames. Two Circles(23 February 2008). Retrieved 9 July 2023.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 My name is Khan, and I'm Kaul, Kaul, Upendra. Greater Kashmir(4 September 2020). Retrieved 9 July 2023.
  36. ↑ 36.00 36.01 36.02 36.03 36.04 36.05 36.06 36.07 36.08 36.09 36.10 36.11 36.12 36.13 The Valley of Kashmir{{#if:Lawrence|, Lawrence}. Asian Educational Services(2005). ISBN 978-81-206-1630-1
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 37.6 Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People: Analytical Perspective{{#if:Raina|, Raina}. Partridge Singapore(13 November 2014). ISBN 978-1-4828-9945-0
  38. ↑ Panorama of Indian Anthroponomy: An Historical, Socio-Cultural and Linguistic Analysis of Indian Personal Names{{#if:Sharma|, Sharma}. Mittal Publication(2005). ISBN 978-81-8324-078-9
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Kashmir in conflict{{#if:Schofield|, Schofield}. I.B. Tauris & Co(2003). ISBN 1-86064-898-3
  40. ↑ 40.00 40.01 40.02 40.03 40.04 40.05 40.06 40.07 40.08 40.09 40.10 40.11 40.12 40.13 40.14 40.15 40.16 40.17 Accursed & Jihadi Neighbour{{#if:Agrawal|, Agrawal}. Commercial Services(20 August 2014). ISBN 978-81-930512-0-7
  41. ↑ Uttar Pradesh{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Anthropological Survey of India(2005). ISBN 978-81-7304-114-3
  42. ↑ Islam in Kashmir: Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century (pages 35, 191){{#if:Wani|, Wani}. Oriental Publishing House(2004). ISBN 978-81-901385-0-5
  43. ↑ Folk Dances of Kashmir. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
  44. ↑ Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society{{#if:Kaw|, Kaw}. APH Publishing(2004). ISBN 978-81-7648-537-1
  45. ↑ Culture and Political History of Kashmir{{#if:Bamzai|, Bamzai}. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.(1994). ISBN 978-81-85880-31-0
  46. ↑ Kashmir has special confectionary. Thaindian.com(13 March 2008). Retrieved 25 March 2012.

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