Template:Infobox book Template:Sangam literature
The Tirukkuṟaḷ (Template:Lang-ta), or shortly the Kural (Template:Lang-ta), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each.Template:Sfn The text is divided into three books with aphoristic teachings on virtue (aram), wealth (porul) and love (inbam), respectively.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Considered one of the greatest works ever written on ethics and morality, it is widely acknowledged for its universality and secular nature.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Its authorship is traditionally attributed to Valluvar, also known in full as Thiruvalluvar. The text has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. The traditional accounts describe it as the last work of the third Sangam, but linguistic analysis suggests a later date of 450 to 500 CE and that it was composed after the Sangam period.Template:Sfn
The Kural text is among the earliest systems of Indian epistemology and metaphysics. The work is traditionally praised with epithets and alternative titles, including "the Tamil Veda" and "the Divine Book."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Written on the ideas of ahimsa,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn it emphasizes non-violence and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Ref label In addition, it highlights virtues such as truthfulness, self-restraint, gratitude, hospitality, kindness, goodness of wife, duty, giving, and so forth,Template:Sfn besides covering a wide range of social and political topics such as king, ministers, taxes, justice, forts, war, greatness of army and soldier's honor, death sentence for the wicked, agriculture, education, abstinence from alcohol and intoxicants.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn It also includes chapters on friendship, love, sexual unions, and domestic life.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The text effectively denounced previously held misbeliefs that were common during the Sangam era and permanently redefined the cultural values of the Tamil land.Template:Sfn
The Kural has influenced scholars and leaders across the ethical, social, political, economic, religious, philosophical, and spiritual spheres over its history.Template:Sfn These include Ilango Adigal, Kambar, Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, Albert Schweitzer, Ramalinga Swamigal, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Karl Graul, George Uglow Pope, Alexander Piatigorsky, and Yu Hsi. The work remains the most translated, the most cited, and the most citable of Tamil literary works.Template:Sfn The text has been translated into at least 40 Indian and non-Indian languages, making it one of the most translated ancient works. Ever since it came to print for the first time in 1812, the Kural text has never been out of print.Template:Sfn The Kural is considered a masterpiece and one of the most important texts of the Tamil literature.Template:Sfn Its author is venerated for his selection of virtues found in the known literature and presenting them in a manner that is common and acceptable to all.Template:Sfn The Tamil people and the government of Tamil Nadu have long celebrated and upheld the text with reverence.Template:Sfn
Etymology and nomenclature
Template:Main The term Template:Transliteration is a compound word made of two individual terms, Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration. Template:Transliteration is an honorific Tamil term that corresponds to the universally Indian, Sanskrit term Template:Transliteration meaning "holy, sacred, excellent, honorable, and beautiful."Template:Sfn The term Template:Transliteration has as many as 19 different meanings in Tamil.Template:Sfn Template:Transliteration means something that is "short, concise, and abridged."Template:Sfn Etymologically, Template:Transliteration is the shortened form of Template:Transliteration, which is derived from Template:Transliteration, one of the two Tamil poetic forms explained by the Tolkappiyam, the other one being Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn According to Miron Winslow, Template:Transliteration is used as a literary term to indicate "a metrical line of 2 feet, or a distich or couplet of short lines, the first of 4 and the second of 3 feet."Template:Sfn Thus, Tirukkuṟaḷ literally comes to mean "sacred couplets."Template:Sfn
The work is highly cherished in the Tamil culture, as reflected by its twelve traditional titles: Tirukkuṟaḷ (the sacred kural), Uttaravedam (the ultimate Veda), Tiruvalluvar (eponymous with the author), Poyyamoli (the falseless word), Vayurai valttu (truthful praise), Teyvanul (the divine book), Potumarai (the common Veda), Valluva Maalai (garland made by the author), Tamil Manunool (Tamil ethical treatise), Tiruvalluva Payan (fruit of the author), Muppal (the three-fold path), and Tamilmarai (the Tamil Veda).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The work is traditionally grouped under the Eighteen Lesser Texts series of the late Sangam works, known in Tamil as Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku.Template:Sfn
Date
Template:Main The Kural has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. According to traditional accounts, it was the last work of the third Sangam and was subjected to a divine test, which it passed. The scholars who believe this tradition, such as Somasundara Bharathiar and M. Rajamanickam, date the text to as early as 300 BCE. Historian K. K. Pillay assigned it to the early 1st century CE.Template:Sfn According to Kamil Zvelebil, a Czech scholar of Tamil literature, these early dates such as 300 BCE to 1 BCE are unacceptable and not supported by evidence within the text. The diction and grammar of the Kural, and Valluvar's indebtedness to some earlier Sanskrit sources, suggest that he lived after the "early Tamil bardic poets," but before Tamil bhakti poets era.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In 1959, S. Vaiyapuri Pillai assigned the work to around or after the 6th century CE. His proposal is based on the evidence that the Kural text contains a large proportion of Sanskrit loan words, shows awareness and indebtedness to some Sanskrit texts best dated to the first half of the 1st millennium CE, and the grammatical innovations in the language of the Kural literature.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label Pillai published a list of 137 Sanskrit loan words in the Kural text.Template:Sfn Later scholars such as Thomas Burrow and Murray Barnson Emeneau show that 35 of these are of Dravidian origin and not Sanskrit loan words. Zvelebil states that an additional few have uncertain etymology and that future studies may prove those to be Dravidian.Template:Sfn The 102 remaining loan words from Sanskrit are "not negligible", and some of the teachings in the Kural text, according to Zvelebil, are "undoubtedly" based on the then extant Sanskrit works such as the Arthashastra and Manusmriti (also called the Manavadharmasastra).Template:Sfn
In his treatise of Tamil literary history published in 1974, Zvelebil states that the Kural text does not belong to the Sangam period and dates it to somewhere between 450 and 500 CE.Template:Sfn His estimate is based on the language of the text, its allusions to the earlier works, and its borrowing from some Sanskrit treatises.Template:Sfn Zvelebil notes that the text features several grammatical innovations that are absent in the older Sangam literature. The text also features a higher number of Sanskrit loan words compared with these older texts.Template:Sfn According to Zvelebil, besides being part of the ancient Tamil literary tradition, the author was also a part of the "one great Indian ethical, didactic tradition" as a few of the verses in the Kural text are "undoubtedly" translations of the verses of earlier Indian texts.Template:Sfn
In the 19th century and the early 20th century, European writers and missionaries variously dated the text and its author to between 400 and 1000 CE.Template:Sfn According to Blackburn, the "current scholarly consensus" dates the text and the author to approximately 500 CE.Template:Sfn
In 1921, in the face of incessant debate on the precise date, the Tamil Nadu government officially declared 31 BCE as the year of Valluvar at a conference presided over by Maraimalai Adigal.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On 18 January 1935, the Valluvar Year was added to the calendar.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label
Author
Template:Main Template:Quote box
The Kural text was authored by Thiruvalluvar (lit. Saint Valluvar).Template:Sfn He is known by various other names including Poyyil Pulavar, Mudharpavalar, Deivappulavar, Nayanar, Devar, Nanmukanar, Mathanubangi, Sennabbodhakar, and Perunavalar.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn There is negligible authentic information available about Valluvar's life.Template:Sfn For all practical purposes, neither his actual name nor the original title of his work can be determined with certainty.Template:Sfn The Kural text itself does not name its author.Template:Sfn The name Thiruvalluvar was first mentioned in the later era Shaivite Hindu text known as the Tiruvalluva Maalai, also of unclear date.Template:Sfn However, the Tiruvalluva Maalai does not mention anything about Valluvar's birth, family, caste or background. No other authentic pre-colonial texts have been found to support any legends about the life of Valluvar. Starting around early 19th century, numerous inconsistent legends on Valluvar in various Indian languages and English were published.Template:Sfn
Various claims have been made regarding Valluvar's family background and occupation in the colonial era literature, all inferred from selective sections of his text or hagiographies published since the colonial era started in Tamil Nadu.Template:Sfn One traditional version claims that he was a Paraiyar weaver.Template:Sfn Another theory is that he must have been from the agricultural caste of Vellalars because he extols agriculture in his work.Template:Sfn Another states he was an outcaste, born to a Pariah woman and a Brahmin father.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mu Raghava Iyengar speculated that "valluva" in his name is a variation of "vallabha", the designation of a royal officer.Template:Sfn S. Vaiyapuri Pillai derived his name from "valluvan" (a Paraiyar caste of royal drummers) and theorized that he was "the chief of the proclaiming boys analogous to a trumpet-major of an army".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The traditional biographies not only are inconsistent, but also contain incredulous claims about the author of the Kural text. Along with various versions of his birth circumstances, many state he went to a mountain and met the legendary Agastya and other sages.Template:Sfn There are also accounts claiming that, during his return journey, Valluvar sat under a tree whose shadow sat still over him and did not move the entire day, he killed a demon, and many more.Template:Sfn Scholars consider these and all associated aspects of these hagiographic stories to be fiction and ahistorical, a feature common to "international and Indian folklore". The alleged low birth, high birth and being a pariah in the traditional accounts are also doubtful.Template:Sfn Traditionally, Valluvar is believed to have married to VasukiTemplate:Sfn and had a friend and a disciple named Elelasingan.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In a manner similar to speculations of the author's biography, there has been much speculation about his religion with no historical evidence. In determining Valluvar's religion, the crucial test to be applied according to M. S. Purnalingam Pillai is to analyze what religious philosophy he has not condemned.Template:Sfn He also adds that Valluvar has "not said a word against" the Saiva Siddhanta principles.Template:Sfn The Kural text is aphoristic and non-denominational in nature and can be selectively interpreted in many ways. This has led almost every major religious group in India, including Christianity during the Colonial era, to claim the work and its author as one of their own.Template:Sfn The 19th-century Christian missionary George Uglow Pope, for example, claimed that Valluvar must have lived in the 9th century CE, come in contact with Christian teachers such as Pantaenus of Alexandria, imbibed Christian ideas and peculiarities of Alexandrian teachers and then wrote the "wonderful Kurral" with an "echo of the 'Sermon of the Mount'."Template:Sfn This theory, however, is ahistorical and discredited.Template:Sfn According to Zvelebil, the ethics and ideas in Valluvar's work are not Christian ethics.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label Albert Schweitzer hints that "the dating of the Kural has suffered, along with so many other literary and historical dates, philosophies and mythologies of India, a severe mauling at the hands of the Christian Missionaries, anxious to post-date all irrefutable examples of religious maturity to the Christian era."Template:Sfn
Valluvar is thought to have belonged to either Jainism or Hinduism.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn This can be observed in his treatment of the concept of ahimsa or non-violence, which is the principal concept of both the religions.Template:Ref label In the 1819 translation, Francis Whyte Ellis mentions that the Tamil community debates whether Valluvar was a Jain or Hindu.Template:Sfn According to Zvelebil, Valluvar's treatment of the chapters on moral vegetarianism and non-killing reflects the Jain precepts.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label Certain epithets for God and ascetic values found in the text are found in Jainism, states Zvelebil. He theorizes that Valluvar was probably "a learned Jain with eclectic leanings", who was well acquainted with the earlier Tamil literature and also had knowledge of the Sanskrit texts.Template:Sfn According to A. Chakravarthy Nainar, the Jaina tradition associates the work with Kunda Kunda Acharya, also known as Elachariyar in the Tamil region, the chief of the Southern Pataliputra Dravidian Sanghaat, who lived around the latter half of the first century BCE and the former half of the first century CE.Template:Sfn Nevertheless, early Digambara or Svetambara Jaina texts do not mention Valluvar or the Kural text. The first claim of Valluvar as an authority appears in a 16th-century Jain text.Template:Sfn
Valluvar's writings, according to scholars, also suggest that he might have belonged to Hinduism. Hindu teachers have mapped his teachings in the Kural literature to the teachings found in Hindu texts.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The three parts that the Kural is divided into, namely, aṟam (virtue), poruḷ (wealth) and inbam (love), aiming at attaining veedu (ultimate salvation), follow, respectively, the four foundations of Hinduism, namely, dharma, artha, kama and moksha.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn While the text extols the virtue of non-violence, it also dedicates many of 700 poruḷ couplets to various aspects of statecraft and warfare in a manner similar to the Hindu text Arthasastra.Template:Sfn For example, according to the text, an army has a duty to kill in battle, and a king must execute criminals for justice.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label Valluvar's mentioning of God Vishnu in couplets 610 and 1103 and Goddess Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 suggests the Vaishnavite beliefs of the author.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn P. R. Natarajan lists at least 24 different usage of Hindu origin in 29 different couplets across the Kural text.Template:Sfn According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of Brahminism, a rational analysis of the Kural text suggests that Valluvar was a Hindu, and not a Jain.Template:Sfn Matthieu Ricard believes Valluvar belonged to the Shaivite tradition of South India.Template:Sfn According to Thomas Manninezhath – a theology scholar who grew up in South India, the Tirukkuṟaḷ is believed by the natives to reflect Advaita Vedanta philosophy and teaches an "Advaitic way of life".Template:Sfn
Notwithstanding these debates, Valluvar is praised by scholars for his innate nature to select the virtues found in all the known works and present them in a manner that is common and acceptable to everyone.Template:Sfn The author is remembered and cherished for his universal secular values, and his treatise has been called Ulaga Podhu Marai (the universal scripture).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Contents
The Kural is structured into 133 chapters, each containing 10 couplets (or kurals), for a total of 1,330 couplets.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label All the couplets are in kural venba metre, and all the 133 chapters have an ethical theme and are grouped into three parts, or "books":Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Template:Pie chart
- Book I – Aṟam (Template:Lang): Book of Virtue (Dharma), dealing with moral values of an individualTemplate:Sfn and essentials of yoga philosophyTemplate:Sfn (Chapters 1–38)
- Book II – Poruḷ (Template:Lang): Book of Polity (Artha), dealing with socio-economic values,Template:Sfn polity, society and administrationTemplate:Sfn (Chapters 39–108)
- Book III – Inbam (Template:Lang): Book of Love (Kama), dealing with psychological valuesTemplate:Sfn and loveTemplate:Sfn (Chapters 109–133)
Template:Quote box The book on aṟam (virtue) contains 380 verses, that of poruḷ (wealth) has 700 and that of inbam or kāmam (love) has 250. Each kural or couplet contains exactly seven words, known as cirs, with four cirs on the first line and three on the second, following the kural metre. A cir is a single or a combination of more than one Tamil word. For example, the term Tirukkuṟaḷ is a cir formed by combining the two words tiru and kuṟaḷ.Template:Sfn The Kural text has a total of 9310 cirs made of 14,000 Tamil words.
Of the 1,330 couplets in the text, 40 couplets relate to god, rain, ascetics, and virtue; 340 on fundamental everyday virtues of an individual; 250 on royalty; 100 on ministers of state; 220 on essential requirements of administration; 130 on social morality, both positive and negative; and 250 on human love and passion.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Along with the Bhagavad Gita, the Kural is one of the earliest systems of Indian epistemology and metaphysics.Template:Sfn The work largely reflects the first three of the four ancient Indian aims in life, known as purushaarthas, viz., virtue (dharma), wealth (artha) and love (kama).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The fourth aim, namely, salvation (moksha) has been omitted from being dealt with as the fourth book since it does not lend itself to didactic treatment,Template:Sfn but is implicit in the last five chapters of Book I.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label The components of aṟam, poruḷ and inbam encompasses both the agam and puram genres of the Tamil literary tradition as explained in the Tolkappiyam.Template:Sfn According to Sharma, dharma (aṟam) refers to ethical values for the holistic pursuit of life, artha (poruḷ) refers to wealth obtained in ethical manner guided by dharma, and kāma (Inbam) refers to pleasure and fulfilment of one's desires, also guided by dharma.Template:Sfn The corresponding goals of poruḷ and inbam are desirable, yet both need to be regulated by aṟam, according to J. Arunadevi.Template:Sfn According to Indian philosophical tradition, one must remain unattached to wealth and possessions, which can either be transcended or sought with detachment and awareness, and pleasure needs to be fulfilled consciously and without harming anyone.Template:Sfn The Indian tradition also holds that there exists an inherent tension between artha and kama.Template:Sfn Thus, wealth and pleasure must be pursued with an "action with renunciation" (Nishkama Karma), that is, one must act without craving in order to resolve this tension.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Ref label
Template:Hidden begin The content of Tirukkuṟaḷ, according to Zvelebil:Template:Sfn
- Book I—Book of Virtue (38 chapters)
- Chapter 1. In Praise of God (Template:Lang kaṭavuḷ vāḻttu): Couplets 1–10
- Chapter 2. The Excellence of Rain (Template:Lang vāṉ ciṟappu): 11–20
- Chapter 3. The Greatness of Those Who Have Renounced (Template:Lang nīttār perumai): 21–30
- Chapter 4. Assertion of the strength of Virtue (Template:Lang aṟaṉ valiyuṟuttal): 31–40
- Chapter 5. Domestic Life (Template:Lang ilvāḻkkai): 41–50
- Chapter 6. The Goodness of Spouse (Template:Lang vāḻkkaittuṇai nalam): 51–60
- Chapter 7. The Obtaining of Sons (Template:Lang putalvaraip peṟutal): 61–70
- Chapter 8. The Possession of Affection (Template:Lang aṉpuṭaimai): 71–80
- Chapter 9. Hospitality (Template:Lang viruntōmpal): 81–90
- Chapter 10. Kindly Speech (Template:Lang iṉiyavai kūṟal): 91–100
- Chapter 11. Gratitude (Template:Lang ceynnaṉṟi aṟital): 101–110
- Chapter 12. Impartiality (Template:Lang naṭuvu nilaimai): 111–120
- Chapter 13. Self-control (Template:Lang aṭakkamuṭaimai): 121–130
- Chapter 14. Decorous Conduct (Template:Lang oḻukkamuṭaimai): 131–140
- Chapter 15. Not Coveting Another's Wife (Template:Lang piṟaṉil viḻaiyāmai): 141–150
- Chapter 16. Forbearance (Template:Lang poṟaiyuṭaimai): 151–160
- Chapter 17. Absence of Envy (Template:Lang aḻukkāṟāmai): 161–170
- Chapter 18. Not Coveting (Template:Lang veḵkāmai): 171–180
- Chapter 19. Not Speaking Evil of the Absent (Template:Lang puṟaṅkūṟāmai): 181–190
- Chapter 20. Not Speaking Senseless Words (Template:Lang payaṉila collāmai): 191–200
- Chapter 21. Dread of Evil Deeds (Template:Lang tīviṉaiyaccam): 201–210
- Chapter 22. Recognition of Duty (Template:Lang oppuravaṟital): 211–220
- Chapter 23. Giving (Template:Lang īkai): 221–230
- Chapter 24. Fame (Template:Lang pukaḻ): 231–240
- Chapter 25. Possession of Benevolence (Template:Lang aruḷuṭaimai): 241–250
- Chapter 26. Abstinence from Flesh (Vegetarianism) (Template:Lang pulāṉmaṟuttal): 251–260
- Chapter 27. Penance (Template:Lang tavam): 261–270
- Chapter 28. Inconsistent Conduct (Template:Lang kūṭāvoḻukkam): 271–280
- Chapter 29. Absence of Fraud (Template:Lang kaḷḷāmai): 281–290
- Chapter 30. Truthfulness (Template:Lang vāymai): 291–300
- Chapter 31. Refraining from Anger (Template:Lang vekuḷāmai): 301–310
- Chapter 32. Inflicting No Pain (Template:Lang iṉṉāceyyāmai): 311–320
- Chapter 33. Not Killing (Template:Lang kollāmai): 321–330
- Chapter 34. Instability of Earthly Things (Template:Lang nilaiyāmai): 331–340
- Chapter 35. Renunciation (Template:Lang tuṟavu): 341–350
- Chapter 36. Perception of the Truth (Template:Lang meyyuṇartal): 351–360
- Chapter 37. Rooting Out Desire (Template:Lang avāvaṟuttal): 361–370
- Chapter 38. Past Deeds (Template:Lang ūḻ = karma): 371–380
- Book II—Book of Polity (70 chapters)
- Chapter 39. The Greatness of a King (Template:Lang iṟaimāṭci): 381–390
- Chapter 40. Learning (Template:Lang kalvi): 391–400
- Chapter 41. Ignorance (Template:Lang kallāmai): 401–410
- Chapter 42. Learning through Listening (Template:Lang kēḷvi): 411–420
- Chapter 43. Possession of Knowledge (Template:Lang aṟivuṭaimai): 421–430
- Chapter 44. The Correction of Faults (Template:Lang kuṟṟaṅkaṭital): 431–440
- Chapter 45. Seeking the Help of the Great (Template:Lang periyārait tuṇaikkōṭal): 441–450
- Chapter 46. Avoiding Mean Associations (Template:Lang ciṟṟiṉañcērāmai): 451–460
- Chapter 47. Acting after Right Consideration (Template:Lang terintuceyalvakai): 461–470
- Chapter 48. Recognition of Power (Template:Lang valiyaṟital): 471–480
- Chapter 49. Recognition of Opportunity (Template:Lang kālamaṟital): 481–490
- Chapter 50. Recognition of Place (Template:Lang iṭaṉaṟital): 491–500
- Chapter 51. Selection and Confidence (Template:Lang terintuteḷital): 501–510
- Chapter 52. Selection and Employment (Template:Lang terintuviṉaiyāṭal): 511–520
- Chapter 53. Cherishing One's Kin (Template:Lang cuṟṟantaḻāl): 521–530
- Chapter 54. Unforgetfulness (Template:Lang poccāvāmai): 531–540
- Chapter 55. The Right Sceptre (Template:Lang ceṅkōṉmai): 541–550
- Chapter 56. The Cruel Sceptre (Template:Lang koṭuṅkōṉmai): 551–560
- Chapter 57. Absence of Tyranny (Template:Lang veruvantaceyyāmai): 561–570
- Chapter 58. Benignity (Template:Lang kaṇṇōṭṭam): 571–580
- Chapter 59. Spies (Template:Lang oṟṟāṭal): 581–590
- Chapter 60. Energy (Template:Lang ūkkamuṭaimai): 591–600
- Chapter 61. Unsluggishness (Template:Lang maṭiyiṉmai): 601–610
- Chapter 62. Manly Effort (Template:Lang āḷviṉaiyuṭaimai): 611–620
- Chapter 63. Not Despairing in Trouble (Template:Lang iṭukkaṇ aḻiyāmai): 621–630
- Chapter 64. Ministry (Template:Lang amaiccu): 631–640
- Chapter 65. Power in Speech (Template:Lang colvaṉmai): 641–650
- Chapter 66. Purity in Action (Template:Lang viṉaittūymai): 651–660
- Chapter 67. Firmness in Deeds (Template:Lang viṉaittiṭpam): 661–670
- Chapter 68. Method of Action (Template:Lang viṉaiceyalvakai): 671–680
- Chapter 69. The Envoy (Template:Lang tūtu): 681–690
- Chapter 70. Conduct in the Presence of King (Template:Lang maṉṉaraic cērntoḻutal): 691–700
- Chapter 71. Knowledge of Signs (Template:Lang kuṟippaṟital): 701–710
- Chapter 72. Knowledge in the Council Chamber (Template:Lang avaiyaṟital): 711–720
- Chapter 73. Not to Fear the Council (Template:Lang avaiyañcāmai): 721–730
- Chapter 74. The Land (Template:Lang nāṭu): 731–740
- Chapter 75. The Fort (Template:Lang araṇ): 741–750
- Chapter 76. Ways of Accumulating Wealth (Template:Lang poruḷceyalvakai): 751–760
- Chapter 77. Greatness of the Army (Template:Lang paṭaimāṭci): 761–770
- Chapter 78. Military Spirit (Template:Lang paṭaiccerukku): 771–780
- Chapter 79. Friendship (Template:Lang naṭpu): 781–790
- Chapter 80. Scrutiny of Friendships (Template:Lang naṭpārāytal): 791–800
- Chapter 81. Familiarity (Template:Lang paḻaimai): 801–810
- Chapter 82. Evil Friendship (Template:Lang tī naṭpu): 811–820
- Chapter 83. Faithless Friendship (Template:Lang kūṭānaṭpu): 821–830
- Chapter 84. Folly (Template:Lang pētaimai): 831–840
- Chapter 85. Ignorance (Template:Lang pullaṟivāṇmai): 841–850
- Chapter 86. Hostility (Template:Lang ikal): 851–860
- Chapter 87. The Excellence of Hate (Template:Lang pakaimāṭci): 861–870
- Chapter 88. Skill in the Conduct of Quarrels (Template:Lang pakaittiṟanterital): 871–880
- Chapter 89. Secret Enmity (Template:Lang uṭpakai): 881–890
- Chapter 90. Not Offending the Great (Template:Lang periyāraip piḻaiyāmai): 891–900
- Chapter 91. Being Led by Women (Template:Lang peṇvaḻiccēṟal): 901–910
- Chapter 92. Wanton Women (Template:Lang varaiviṉmakaḷir): 911–920
- Chapter 93. Abstinence from Liquor (Template:Lang kaḷḷuṇṇāmai): 921–930
- Chapter 94. Gambling (Template:Lang cūtu): 931–940
- Chapter 95. Medicine (Template:Lang maruntu): 941–950
- Chapter 96. Nobility (Template:Lang kuṭimai): 951–960
- Chapter 97. Honour (Template:Lang māṉam): 961–970
- Chapter 98. Greatness (Template:Langperumai): 971–980
- Chapter 99. Perfect Excellence (Template:Lang cāṉṟāṇmai): 981–990
- Chapter 100. Courtesy (Template:Lang paṇpuṭaimai): 991–1000
- Chapter 101. Useless Wealth (Template:Lang naṉṟiyilcelvam): 1001–1010
- Chapter 102. Shame (Template:Lang nāṇuṭaimai): 1011–1020
- Chapter 103. On Raising the Family (Template:Lang kuṭiceyalvakai): 1021–1030
- Chapter 104. Agriculture (Template:Lang uḻavu): 1031–1040
- Chapter 105. Poverty (Template:Lang nalkuravu): 1041–1050
- Chapter 106. Mendicancy (Template:Langiravu): 1051–1060
- Chapter 107. The Dread of Mendicancy (Template:Lang iravaccam): 1061–1070
- Chapter 108. Vileness (Template:Lang kayamai): 1071–1080
- Book III—Book of Love (25 chapters)
- Chapter 109. Mental Disturbance Caused by the Lady's Beauty (Template:Lang takaiyaṇaṅkuṟuttal): 1081–1090
- Chapter 110. Recognizing the Signs (Template:Langkuṟippaṟital): 1091–1100
- Chapter 111. Rejoicing in the Sexual Union (Template:Lang puṇarccimakiḻtal): 1101–1110
- Chapter 112. Praising Her Beauty (Template:Lang nalampuṉainturaittal): 1111–1120
- Chapter 113. Declaration of Love's Excellence (Template:Lang kātaṟciṟappuraittal): 1121–1130
- Chapter 114. The Abandonment of Reserve (Template:Lang nāṇuttuṟavuraittal): 1131–1140
- Chapter 115. Rumour (Template:Lang alaraṟivuṟuttal): 1141–1150
- Chapter 116. Separation is Unendurable (Template:Lang pirivāṟṟāmai): 1151–1160
- Chapter 117. Complaining of Absence (Template:Langpaṭarmelintiraṅkal): 1161–1170
- Chapter 118. Eyes Concerned with Grief (Template:Lang kaṇvituppaḻital): 1171–1180
- Chapter 119. Grief's Pallor (Template:Lang pacappaṟuparuvaral): 1181–1190
- Chapter 120. The Solitary Anguish (Template:Lang taṉippaṭarmikuti): 1191–1200
- Chapter 121. Sad Memories (Template:Lang niṉaintavarpulampal): 1201–1210
- Chapter 122. Visions of Night (Template:Lang kaṉavunilaiyuraittal): 1211–1220
- Chapter 123. Lamentations at Evening (Template:Lang poḻutukaṇṭiraṅkal): 1221–1230
- Chapter 124. Wasting Away (Template:Lang uṟuppunalaṉaḻital): 1231–1240
- Chapter 125. Soliloquies (Template:Lang neñcoṭukiḷattal): 1241–1250
- Chapter 126. Reserve Destroyed (Template:Lang niṟaiyaḻital): 1251–1260
- Chapter 127. Longing for the Return (Template:Lang avarvayiṉvitumpal): 1261–1270
- Chapter 128. Reading of the Signs (Template:Lang kuṟippaṟivuṟuttal): 1271–1280
- Chapter 129. Desire for Reunion (Template:Lang puṇarccivitumpal): 1281–1290
- Chapter 130. Arguing with One's Heart (Template:Lang neñcoṭupulattal): 1291–1300
- Chapter 131. Lover's Quarrel (Template:Lang pulavi): 1301–1310
- Chapter 132. Petty Jealousies (Template:Lang pulavi nuṇukkam): 1311–1320
- Chapter 133. Pleasures of Temporary Variance (Template:Lang ūṭaluvakai): 1321–1330
Structure
The Kural text is the work of a single author because it has a consistent "language, formal structure and content-structure", states Zvelebil.Template:Sfn Neither is the Kural an anthology nor is there any later additions to the text.Template:Sfn The division into three parts (muppāl) is probably the author's work. However, the subdivisions beyond these three, known as iyals, as found in some surviving manuscripts and commentaries, are likely later additions because there are variations between these subtitles found in manuscripts and those in historical commentaries.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Starting from the medieval era, commentators have multifariously divided the Kural text into different iyal sub-divisions, grouping the Kural chapters diversely under them.Template:Sfn The idea of subdividing the Tirukkural into iyal sub-divisions was first put forth by a Tiruvalluva Maalai verse attributed to Nanpalur Sirumedhaviyar.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The medieval commentators have variously grouped the chapters of Book I into three and four iyals, grouping the original chapters diversely under these divisions and thus changing the order of the chapters widely;Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn while Parimelalhagar divided it into three iyals, others divided it into four,Template:Sfn with some 20th-century commentators going up to six.Template:Sfn Book II has been variously subdivided between three and six iyals.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The chapters of Book III have been variously grouped between two and five iyals.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn For example, the following subdivisions or iyals are found in Parimelalhagar's version, which greatly varies from that of Manakkudavar:Template:Sfn
- Chapters 1–4: Introduction
- Chapters 5–24: Domestic virtue
- Chapters 25–38: Ascetic virtue
- Chapters 39–63: Royalty, the qualities of the leader of men
- Chapters 64–73: The subject and the ruler
- Chapters 74–96: Essential parts of state, shrewdness in public life
- Chapters 97–108: Reaching perfection in social life
- Chapters 109–115: Concealed love
- Chapters 116–133: Wedded love
Modern scholars and publishers chiefly follow Parimelalhagar's model for couplet numbering, chapter ordering, and grouping the chapters into iyals.Template:Sfn
Such subdivisions are likely later additions, but the couplets themselves have been preserved in the original form and there is no evidence of later revisions or insertions into the couplets.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Thus, in spite of these later subdivisions by the medieval commentators, both the domestic and ascetic virtues in Book I are addressed to the householder or commoner.Template:Sfn As Yu Hsi puts it, "Valluvar speaks to the duties of the commoner acting in different capacities as son, father, husband, friend, citizen, and so forth."Template:Sfn According to A. Gopalakrishnan, ascetic virtues in the Kural does not mean renunciation of household life or pursuing of the conventional ascetic life, but only refers to giving up immoderate desires and having self-control that is expected of every individual.Template:Sfn According to Joanne Punzo Waghorne, professor of religion and South Asian studies at the Syracuse University, the Kural is "a homily on righteous living for the householder."Template:Sfn
Like the three-part division, and unlike the iyal subdivisions, the grouping of the couplets into chapters is the author's.Template:Sfn Every topic that Valluvar handles in his work are presented in ten couplets forming a chapter, and the chapter is usually named using a keyword found in the couplets in it.Template:Sfn Exceptions to this convention are found in all the three books of the Kural text as in Chapter 1 in the Book of Aram, Chapter 78 in the Book of Porul, and Chapter 117 in the Book of Inbam, where the words used in title of the chapters are not found anywhere in the chapter's couplets.Template:Sfn Here again, the titles of all the chapters of the Kural text are given by Valluvar himself.Template:Sfn According to S. N. Kandasamy, the naming of the first chapter of the Kural text is in accord with the conventions used in the Tolkappiyam.Template:Sfn
According to Zvelebil, the content of the Kural text is "undoubtedly patterned" and "very carefully structured."Template:Sfn There are no structural gaps in the text, with every couplet indispensable for the structured whole.Template:Sfn There are two distinct meanings for every couplet, namely, a structural one and a proverbial one.Template:Sfn In their isolated form, that is, when removed from the context of the 10-couplet chapter, the couplets lose their structural meaning but retain the "wise saying, moral maxim" sense.Template:Sfn In isolation, a couplet is "a perfect form, possessing, in varying degree, the prosodic and rhetoric qualities of gnomic poetry."Template:Sfn Within the chapter-structure, the couplets acquire their structural meaning and reveal the more complete teaching of the author.Template:Sfn This, Zvelebil states, is the higher pattern in the Kural text, and finally, in relation to the entire work, they acquire perfection in the totality of their structure.Template:Sfn In terms of structural flow, the text journeys the reader from "the imperfect, incomplete" state of man implicit in the early chapters to the "physically, morally, intellectually and emotionally perfect" state of man living as a husband and citizen, states Zvelebil.Template:Sfn In poetic terms, it fuses verse and aphoristic form in diction in a "pithy, vigorous, forceful and terse" manner. Zvelebil calls it an ethics text that expounds a universal, moral and practical approach to life. According to Mahadevan, Valluvar is more considerate about the substance than the linguistic appeal of his writing throughout the work.Template:Sfn
Substance
The Kural text is marked by pragmatic idealism,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn focused on "man in the totality of his relationships".Template:Sfn Despite being a classic, the work has little scope for any poetic excellence.Template:Sfn According to Zvelebil, the text does not feature "true and great poetry" throughout the work, except, notably, in the third book, which deals with love and pleasure.Template:Sfn This emphasis on substance rather than poetry, according to scholars, suggests that Valluvar's main aim was not to produce a work of art, but rather an instructive text focused on wisdom, justice, and ethics.Template:Sfn
The Kural text begins with an invocation of God and then praises the rain for being the vitalizer of all life forms on earth.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It proceeds to describe the qualities of a righteous person, before concluding the introduction by emphasizing the value of aṟam or virtue.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It continues to treat aṟam in every action in life, supplementing it with a chapter on predestination.Template:Sfn Valluvar extols rain next only to God for it provides food and serves as the basis of a stable economic life by aiding in agriculture, which the author asserts as the most important economic activity later in Book II of the Kural text.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Template:Quote box The three books of the Kural base aṟam or dharma (virtue) as their cornerstone,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn resulting in the work being collectively referred to simply as Aṟam.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Valluvar holds that aṟam is common for all, irrespective of whether the person is a bearer of palanquin or the rider in it.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Albert Schweitzer, the idea that good must be done for its own sake comes from various couplets across the Kural text.Template:Sfn The text is a comprehensive pragmatic work that presents philosophy in the first part, political science in the second and poetics in the third.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Of the three books of the Kural literature, the second one on politics and kingdom (poruḷ) is about twice the size of the first, and three times that of the third.Template:Sfn In the 700 couplets on poruḷ (53 percent of the text), Valluvar mostly discusses statecraft and warfare.Template:Sfn While other Sangam texts approved of, and even glorified,Template:Sfn the four immoral deeds of meat-eating, alcohol consumption, polygamy, and prostitution, the Kural literature strongly condemns these as crimes,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn arguably for the first time in the history of the Tamil land.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The Kural is based on the doctrine of ahimsa.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Schweitzer, the Kural "stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage."Template:Sfn Accordingly, Valluvar dictates the householder to renounce the eating of meat "in order that he may become a man of grace."Template:Sfn While the Bible and other Abrahamic texts condemns only the taking away of human life, the Kural is cited for unequivocally and exclusively condemning the "literal taking away of life,"Template:Sfn regardless of whether it is human or animal.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The greatest of personal virtues according to the Kural text is non-killing, followed by veracity,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and the two greatest sins that Valluvar feels very strongly are ingratitude and meat-eating.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Ref label According to J. M. Nallaswamy Pillai, the Kural differs from every other work on morality in that it follows ethics, surprisingly a divine one, even in its Book of Love.Template:Sfn In the words of Gopalkrishna Gandhi, Valluvar maintains his views on personal morality even in the Book of Love, where one can normally expect greater poetic leniency, by describing the hero as "a one-woman man" without concubines.Template:Sfn In a social and political context, the Kural text glorifies valour and victory during war and recommends a death sentence for the wicked only as a means of justice.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
According to Kaushik Roy, the Kural text in substance is a classic on realism and pragmatism, and it is not a mystic, purely philosophical document.Template:Sfn Valluvar presents his theory of state using six elements: army (patai), subjects (kuti), treasure (kul), ministers (amaiccu), allies (natpu), and forts (aran).Template:Sfn Valluvar also recommends forts and other infrastructure, supplies and food storage in preparation for siege.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn A king and his army must always be ready for war, and should launch a violent offensive, at the right place and right time, when the situation so demands and particularly against morally weak and corrupt kingdoms. A good and strong kingdom must be protected with forts made of thick, high and impenetrable walls. The text recommends a hierarchical military organization staffed with fearless soldiers who are willing to die in war,Template:Sfn drawing from the Hindu concepts of non-mystic realism and readiness for war.Template:Sfn
Template:Quote box The Kural text does not recommend democracy; rather it accepts a royalty with ministers bound to a code of ethics and a system of justice.Template:Sfn The king in the text, states K. V. Nagarajan, is assigned the "role of producing, acquiring, conserving, and dispensing wealth".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The king's duty is to provide a just rule, be impartial and have courage in protecting his subjects and in meting out justice and punishment. The text supports death penalty for the wicked in the book of poruḷ, but does so only after emphasizing non-killing as every individual's personal virtue in the book of aṟam.Template:Sfn The Kural cautions against tyranny, appeasement and oppression, with the suggestion that such royal behavior causes natural disasters, depletes the state's wealth and ultimately results in the loss of power and prosperity.Template:Sfn
Valluvar remained a generalist rather than a specialist in any particular field.Template:Sfn He never indulged in specifics but always stressed on the basic principles of morality.Template:Sfn This can be seen across the Kural text: while Valluvar talks about worshiping God, he refrains from mentioning the way of worshiping; he refers to God as an "ultimate reality" without calling him by any name; he talks about land, village, country, kingdom, and king but never refers them by any name; though he mentions about the value of reading and reciting scriptures, he never names them; he talks about the values of charity without laying down the rules for it; though he repeatedly emphasizes about the importance of learning, he never says what is to be learnt; he recommends taxation in governance but does not suggesting any proportion of collection.Template:Sfn
Similes and pseudo-contradictions
Scholars claim that Valluvar seldom shows any concern as to what similes and superlatives he used earlier while writing later chapters, purposely allowing for some repetitions and apparent contradictions in ideas one can find in the Kural text.Template:Sfn Despite knowing its seemingly contradictory nature from a purist point of view, the author is said to employ this method to emphasise the importance of the given code of ethic.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Following are some of the instances where Valluvar is quoted as employing pseudo-contradictions to expound the virtues.Template:Sfn
- While in Chapter 93 Valluvar writes on the evils of intoxication,Template:Sfn in Chapter 109 he uses the same to show the sweetness of love by saying love is sweeter than wine.Template:Sfn
- To the question "What is wealth of all wealth?" Valluvar points to two different things, namely, grace (kural 241) and hearing (kural 411).Template:Sfn
- In regard to the virtues one should follow dearly even at the expense of other virtues, Valluvar points to veracity (kural 297), not coveting another's wife (kural 150), and not being called a slanderer (kural 181). In essence, however, in Chapter 33 he crowns non-killing as the foremost of all virtues, pushing even the virtue of veracity to the second place (kural 323).Template:Sfn
- Whereas he says that one can eject what is natural or inborn in him (kural 376),Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn he indicates that one can overcome the inherent natural flaws by getting rid of laziness (kural 609).Template:Sfn
- While in Chapter 7 he asserts that the greatest gain men can obtain is by their learned children (kural 61),Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn in Chapter 13 he says that it is that which is obtained by self-control (kural 122).Template:Sfn
The ethical connections between these verses are widely elucidated ever since the medieval commentaries. For example, Parimelalhagar elucidates the ethical connections between couplets 380 and 620, 481 and 1028, 373 and 396, and 383 and 672 in his commentary.Template:Sfn
Commentaries and translations
Template:Main Template:See also
Commentaries
The Kural is one of the most reviewed of all works in Tamil literature, and almost every notable scholar of Tamil has written exegesis or commentaries (explanation in prose or verse), known in Tamil as urai, on it.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label Some of the Tamil literature that was composed after the Kural quote or borrow its couplets in their own texts.Template:Sfn According to Aravindan, these texts may be considered as the early commentaries to the Kural text.Template:Sfn
Dedicated commentaries on the Kural text began to appear about and after the 10th century CE. There were at least ten medieval commentaries of which only six have survived into the modern era. The ten medieval commentators include Manakkudavar, Dharumar, Dhamatthar, Nacchar, Paridhiyar, Thirumalaiyar, Mallar, Pari Perumal, Kaalingar, and Parimelalhagar, all of whom lived between the 10th and the 13th centuries CE. Of these, only the works of Manakkudavar, Paridhi, Kaalingar, Pari Perumal, and Parimelalhagar are available today. The works of Dharumar, Dhaamatthar, and Nacchar are only partially available. The commentaries by Thirumalaiyar and Mallar are lost completely. The best known among these are the commentaries by Parimelalhagar, Kaalingar, and Manakkudavar.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Among the ten medieval commentaries, scholars have found spelling, homophonic, and other minor textual variations in a total of 900 couplets, including 217 couplets in Book I, 487 couplets in Book II, and 196 couplets in Book III.Template:Sfn
The best known and influential historic commentary on the Kural text is the Parimelalhakiyar virutti. It was written by Parimelalhagar – a Vaishnava Brahmin, likely based in Kanchipuram, who lived about or before 1272 CE.Template:Sfn Along with the Kural text, this commentary has been widely published and is in itself a Tamil classic.Template:Sfn Parimelalhagar's commentary has survived over the centuries in many folk and scholarly versions. A more scholarly version of this commentary was published by Krisnamachariyar in 1965.Template:Sfn According to Norman Cutler, Parimelalhagar's commentary interprets and maneuvers the Kural text within his own context, grounded in the concepts and theological premises of Hinduism. His commentary closely follows the Kural's teachings, while reflecting both the cultural values and textual values of the 13th- and 14th-century Tamil Nadu. Valluvar's text can be interpreted and maneuvered in other ways, states Cutler.Template:Sfn
Besides the ten medieval commentaries, there are at least three more commentaries written by unknown medieval authors.Template:Sfn One of them was published under the title "Palhaiya Urai" (meaning ancient commentary), while the second one was based on Paridhiyar's commentary.Template:Sfn The third one was published in 1991 under the title "Jaina Urai" (meaning Jaina commentary) by Saraswathi Mahal Library in Thanjavur.Template:Sfn Following these medieval commentaries, there are at least 21 venpa commentaries to the Kural, including Somesar Mudumoli Venba, Murugesar Muduneri Venba, Sivasiva Venba, Irangesa Venba, Vadamalai Venba, Dhinakara Venba, and Jinendra Venba, all of which are considered commentaries in verse form.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The 16th-century commentary by Thirumeni Rathna Kavirayar,Template:Sfn and the 19th-century commentary by Ramanuja Kavirayar,Template:Sfn are some of the well-known scholarly works before the 20th century.
Several modern commentaries started appearing in the 19th and 20th centuries. Of these, the commentaries by Kaviraja Pandithar and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer are considered classic by modern scholars.Template:Sfn Some of the commentaries of the 20th century include those by K. Vadivelu Chettiar,Template:Sfn Krishnampet K. Kuppusamy Mudaliar,Template:Sfn Iyothee Thass, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Thiru Vi Ka, Bharathidasan, M. Varadarajan, Namakkal Kavignar, Thirukkuralar V. Munusamy, Devaneya Pavanar, M. Karunanithi, and Solomon Pappaiah, besides several hundred others. The commentary by M. Varadarajan entitled Tirukkural Thelivurai (lit. Lucid commentary of the Kural), first published in 1949, remains the most published modern commentary, with more than 200 editions by the same publisher.Template:Sfn
According to K. Mohanraj, as of 2013, there were at least 497 Tamil language commentaries written by 382 scholars beginning with Manakkudavar from the Medieval era. Of these at least 277 scholars have written commentaries for the entire work.Template:Sfn
Translations
The Kural has been the most frequently translated ancient Tamil text. By 1975, its translations in at least 20 major languages had been published:Template:Sfn
- Indian languages: Sanskrit, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, and Urdu
- Non-Indian languages: Burmese, Malay, Chinese, Fijian, Latin, French, German, Russian, Polish, Swedish, Thai, and English
The text was likely translated into Indian languages by Indian scholars over the centuries, but the palm leaf manuscripts of such translations have been rare. For example, S. R. Ranganathan, a librarian of University of Madras during the British rule, discovered a Malayalam translation copied in year 777 of the Malayalam calendar, a manuscript that Zvelebil dates to late 16th century.Template:Sfn
The text was translated into several European languages during the colonial era, particularly by the Christian missionaries.Template:Sfn The first European language translation was made in Latin by Constantius Joseph Beschi and was published in 1730. However, he translated only the first two books, viz., virtue and wealth, leaving out the book on love because its erotic and sexual nature was deemed by him to be inappropriate for a Christian missionary. The first French translation was brought about by an unknown author by about 1767 that went unnoticed. The first available French version was by E. S. Ariel in 1848. Again, he did not translate the whole work but only parts of it. The first German translation was made by Karl Graul, who published it in 1856 both at London and Leipzig.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Graul additionally translated the work into Latin in 1856.Template:Sfn
The first, and incomplete, English translations were made by N. E. Kindersley in 1794 and then by Francis Whyte Ellis in 1812. While Kindersley translated a selection of the Kural text, Ellis translated 120 couplets in all—69 of them in verse and 51 in prose.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn E. J. Robinson's translations of part of the Kural into English were published in 1873 in his book The Tamil Wisdom and its 1885 expanded edition titled The Tales and Poems of South India, ultimately translating the first two books of the Kural text.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn W. H. Drew translated the first two books of the Kural text in prose in 1840 and 1852, respectively. It contained the original Tamil text of the Kural, Parimelalhagar's commentary, Ramanuja Kavirayar's amplification of the commentary and Drew's English prose translation. However, Drew translated only 630 couplets, and the remaining were translated by John Lazarus, a native missionary, providing the first complete translation in English made by two translators. Like Beschi, Drew did not translate the third book on love.Template:Sfn The first complete English translation of the Kural by a single author was the one by the Christian missionary George Uglow Pope in 1886, which introduced the complete Kural to the western world.Template:Sfn
The translations of the Kural in Southeast Asian and East Asian languages were published in the 20th century. A few of these relied on re-translating the earlier English translations of the work.Template:Sfn
By the end of the 20th century, there were about 24 translations of the Kural in English alone, by both native and non-native scholars, including those by V. V. S. Aiyar, K. M. Balasubramaniam, Shuddhananda Bharati, A. Chakravarti, M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, C. Rajagopalachari, P. S. Sundaram, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, G. Vanmikanathan, Kasturi Srinivasan, S. N. Sriramadesikan, and K. R. Srinivasa Iyengar.Template:Sfn The work has also been translated into Vaagri Booli, the language of the Narikuravas, a tribal community in Tamil Nadu, by Kittu Sironmani.Template:Sfn As of Template:Year, the Kural text had been translated into at least 42 languages, with some 100 different translations in English alone. In October 2021, the Central Institute of Classical Tamil announced its translating the Kural text into 102 world languages.Template:Sfn
Translational difficulties and distortions
With a highly compressed prosodic form, the Kural text employs the intricately complex Kural venba metre, known for its eminent suitability to gnomic poetry.Template:Sfn This form, which Zvelebil calls "a marvel of brevity and condensation," is closely connected with the structural properties of the Tamil language and has historically presented extreme difficulties to its translators.Template:Sfn Talking about translating the Kural into other languages, Herbert Arthur Popley observes, "it is impossible in any translation to do justice to the beauty and force of the original."Template:Sfn After translating a good portion of the Kural text, Karl Graul stated, "No translation can convey any idea of its charming effect. It is truly an apple of gold in a net-work of silver."Template:Sfn Zvelebil claims that it is impossible to truly appreciate the maxims found in the Kural couplets through a translation but rather that the Kural has to be read and understood in its original Tamil form.Template:Sfn
Besides these inherent difficulties in translating the Kural, some scholars have attempted to either read their own ideas into the Kural couplets or deliberately misinterpret the message to make it conform to their preconceived notions. The Latin translation by the Christian missionary Father Beshi, for instance, contains several such mistranslations. According to V. Ramasamy, "Beschi is purposely distorting the message of the original when he renders Template:Lang as 'the sea of miserable life' and the phrase Template:Lang as 'sea of this birth' which has been translated by others as 'the sea of many births'. Beschi means thus 'those who swim the vast sea of miseries'. The concept of rebirth or many births for the same soul is contrary to Christian principle and belief."Template:Sfn
According to Norman Cutler, both in the past and in the contemporary era, the Kural has been reinterpreted and fit to reflect the textual values in the text as well as the cultural values of the author(s).Template:Sfn About 1300 CE, the Tamil scholar Parimelalhagar interpreted the text in Brahmanical premises and terms.Template:Sfn Just like Christian missionaries during the colonial era cast the work in their own Christian premises, phrases and concepts, some Dravidianists of the contemporary era reinterpret and cast the work to further their own goals and socio-political values. This has produced highly divergent interpretations of the original.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Publication
The Tirukkuṟaḷ remained largely unknown outside India for over a millennium. As was the practice across the ancient Indian subcontinent, in addition to palm-leaf manuscripts, the Kural literature had been passed on as word of mouth from parents to their children and from preceptors to their students for generations within the Tamil-speaking regions of South India.Template:Sfn According to Sanjeevi, the first translation of the work appeared in Malayalam (Kerala) in 1595.Template:Sfn
The first paper print of the Tirukkuṟaḷ is traceable to 1812, credited to the efforts of Ñānapirakācar who used wooden blocks embossed from palm-leaf scripts to produce copies of the Tirukkuṟaḷ along with those of Nalatiyar.Template:Sfn It was only in 1835 that Indians were permitted to establish printing press. The Kural was the first book to be published in Tamil,Template:Sfn followed by the Naladiyar.Template:Sfn It is said that when Francis Whyte Ellis, a British civil servant in the Madras Presidency and a scholar of Tamil and Sanskrit who had established a Tamil sangam (academy) in Madras in 1825, asked Tamil enthusiasts to "bring to him ancient Tamil manuscripts for publication,"Template:Sfn Kandappan, the butler of George Harrington, a European civil servant possibly in the Madurai district, and the grandfather of Iyothee Thass, handed in handwritten palm-leaf manuscripts of the Kural text as well as the Tiruvalluva Maalai and the Naladiyar, which he found between 1825 and 1831 in a pile of leaves used for cooking. The books were finally printed in 1831 by Ellis with the help of his manager Muthusamy Pillai and Tamil scholar Tandavaraya Mudaliar.Template:Sfn Subsequent editions of the Tirukkuṟaḷ appeared in 1833, 1838, 1840, and 1842.Template:Sfn Soon many commentaries followed, including those by Mahalinga Iyer, who published only the first 24 chapters.Template:Sfn The Kural has been continuously in print ever since.Template:Sfn By 1925, the Kural literature had already appeared in more than 65 editionsTemplate:Sfn and by the turn of the 21st century, it had crossed 500 editions.Template:Sfn
The first critical edition of the Tirukkaral based on manuscripts discovered in Hindu monasteries and private collections was published in 1861 by Arumuka Navalar – the Jaffna-born Tamil scholar and Shaivism activist.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Navalar, states Zvelebil, was "probably the greatest and most influential among the forerunners" in studying numerous versions and bringing out an edited split-sandhi version for the scholarship of the Kurral and many other historic Tamil texts in the 19th century.Template:Sfn
Parimelalhagar's commentary on the Tirukkuṟaḷ was published for the first time in 1840 and became the most widely published commentary ever since.Template:Sfn In 1850, the Kural was published with commentaries by Vedagiri Mudaliar, who published a revised version later in 1853.Template:Sfn This is the first time that the entire Kural text was published with commentaries.Template:Sfn In 1917, Manakkudavar's commentary for the first book of the Kural text was published by V. O. Chidambaram Pillai.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Manakkudavar commentary for the entire Kural text was first published in 1925 by K. Ponnusami Nadar.Template:Sfn As of 2013, Perimelalhagar's commentary appeared in more than 200 editions by as many as 30 publishers.Template:Sfn
Since the 1970s, the Kural text has been transliterated into ancient Tamil scripts such as the Tamil-Brahmi script, Pallava script, Vatteluttu script and others by Gift Siromoney of the International Institute of Tamil Studies at the Madras Christian College.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Comparison with other ancient literature
The Kural text is a part of the ancient Tamil literary tradition, yet it is also a part of the "one great Indian ethical, didactic tradition", as a few of his verses are "undoubtedly" translations of the verses in Sanskrit classics.Template:Sfn The themes and ideas in Tirukkuṟaḷ – sometimes with close similarities and sometimes with significant differences – are also found in Manu's Manusmriti (also called the Manavadharmasastra), Kautilya's Arthashastra, Kamandaka's Nitisara, and Vatsyayana's Kamasutra.Template:Sfn Some of the teachings in the Tirukkuṟaḷ, states Zvelebil, are "undoubtedly" based on the then extant Sanskrit works such as the more ancient Arthashastra and Manusmriti.Template:Sfn
According to Zvelebil, the Tirukkuṟaḷ borrows "a great number of lines" and phrases from earlier Tamil texts. For example, phrases found in Kuruntokai (lit. "The Collection of Short [Poems]") and many lines in Narrinai (lit. "The Excellent Love Settings") which starts with an invocation to Vishnu, appear in the later Tirukkuṟaḷ.Template:Sfn Authors who came after the composition of the Tirukkuṟaḷ similarly extensively quoted and borrowed from the Tirukkuṟaḷ. For example, the Prabandhas such as the Tiruvalluvamalai probably from the 10th century CE are anthologies on Tirukkuṟaḷ, and these extensively quote and embed it verses written in meters ascribed to gods, goddesses, and revered Tamil scholars.Template:Sfn Similarly, the love story Perunkatai (lit. "The Great Story") probably composed in the 9th century quotes from the Tirukkuṟaḷ and embeds similar teachings and morals.Template:Sfn Verse 22.59–61 of the Manimekalai – a Buddhist-princess and later nun based love story epic, likely written about the 6th century CE, also quotes the Tirukkuṟaḷ. This Buddhist epic ridicules Jainism while embedding morals and ideals similar to those in the Kural.Template:Sfn
The Tirukkuṟaḷ teachings are similar to those found in Arthasastra but differ in some important aspects. In Valluvar's theory of state, unlike Kautilya, the army (patai) is the most important element. Valluvar recommends that a well kept and well-trained army (patai) led by an able commander and ready to go to war is necessary for a state.Template:Sfn
According to Hajela, the Porul of the Kural text is based on morality and benevolence as its cornerstones.Template:Sfn The Tirukkuṟaḷ teaches that the ministers and people who work in public office should lead an ethical and moral life.Template:Sfn Unlike the Manusmriti, the Kural does not give women a lowly and dependent position but are rather idealised.Template:Sfn The Tirukkuṟaḷ also does not give importance to castes or any dynasty of rulers and ministers. The text states that one should call anyone with virtue and kindness a Brahmin.Template:Sfn
World literature
Scholars compare the teachings in the Tirukkuṟaḷ with those in other ancient thoughts such as the Confucian sayings in Lun Yu, Hitopadesa, Panchatantra, Manusmriti, Tirumandiram, Book of Proverbs in the Bible, sayings of the Buddha in Dhammapada, and the ethical works of Persian origin such as Gulistan and Bustan, in addition to the holy books of various religions.Template:Sfn
The Kural text and the Confucian sayings recorded in the classic Analects of Chinese (called Lun Yu, meaning "Sacred Sayings") share some similarities. Both Valluvar and Confucius focused on the behaviors and moral conducts of a common person. Similar to Valluvar, Confucius advocated legal justice embracing human principles, courtesy, and filial piety, besides the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, loyalty and trustworthiness as foundations of life.Template:Sfn While ahimsa or non-violence remains the fundamental virtue of the Valluvarean tradition, Zen remains the central theme in Confucian tradition.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Incidentally, Valluvar differed from Confucius in two respects. Firstly, unlike Confucius, Valluvar was also a poet. Secondly, Confucius did not deal with the subject of conjugal love, for which Valluvar devoted an entire division in his work.Template:Sfn Child-rearing is central to the Confucian thought of procreation of humanity and the benevolence of society. The Lun Yu says, "Therefore an enlightened ruler will regulate his people's livelihood so as to ensure that, above they have enough to serve their parents and below they have enough to support their wives and children."Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label
Reception
Template:Main Template:Multiple image
The Kural text has historically received highly esteemed reception from virtually every section of the society. Many post-Sangam and medieval poets have sung in praise of the Kural text and its author. Avvaiyar praised Valluvar as the one who pierced an atom and injected seven seas into it and then compressed it and presented it in the form of his work, emphasizing on the work's succinctness.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Kural remains the only work that has been honored with an exclusive work of compiled paeans known as the Tiruvalluva Maalai in the Tamil literary corpus, attributed to 55 different poets, including legendary ones.Template:Sfn All major Indian religions and sects, including Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Jainism, and Buddhism, have greatly celebrated the Kural text, many of which incorporated Kural's teachings in both their religious and non-religious works, including the Silappathikaram, Manimekalai, Tirumurai, Periya Puranam, and Kamba Ramayanam.Template:Sfn
The Kural has been widely acknowledged within and outside India for its universal, non-denominational values.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Russian philosopher Alexander Piatigorsky called it chef d'oeuvre of both Indian and world literature "due not only to the great artistic merits of the work but also to the lofty humane ideas permeating it which are equally precious to the people all over the world, of all periods and countries."Template:Sfn G. U. Pope called its author "a bard of universal man" for being a generalist and universal.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Albert Schweitzer, "there hardly exists in the literature of the world a collection of maxims in which we find so much of lofty wisdom."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Leo Tolstoy called it "the Hindu Kural" and recommended it to Mahatma Gandhi.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mahatma Gandhi called it "a textbook of indispensable authority on moral life" and went on to say, "The maxims of Valluvar have touched my soul. There is none who has given such a treasure of wisdom like him."Template:Sfn
Jesuit, Catholic and Protestant missionaries in colonial-era South India have highly praised the text, many of whom went on to translate the text into European languages. The Protestant missionary Edward Jewitt Robinson said that the Kural contains all things and there is nothing which it does not contain.Template:Sfn The Anglican missionary John Lazarus said, "No Tamil work can ever approach the purity of the Kural. It is a standing repute to modern Tamil."Template:Sfn According to the American Christian missionary Emmons E. White, "Thirukkural is a synthesis of the best moral teachings of the world."Template:Sfn
The Kural has also been exalted by leaders of political, spiritual, social, ethical, religious and other domains of the society since ancient times. Rajaji commented, "It is the gospel of love and a code of soul-luminous life. The whole of human aspiration is epitomized in this immortal book, a book for all ages."Template:Sfn According to K. M. Munshi, "Thirukkural is a treatise par excellence on the art of living."Template:Sfn The Indian nationalist and Yoga guru Sri Aurobindo stated, "Thirukkural is gnomic poetry, the greatest in planned conception and force of execution ever written in this kind."Template:Sfn E. S. Ariel, who translated and published the third part of the Kural to French in 1848, called it "a masterpiece of Tamil literature, one of the highest and purest expressions of human thought."Template:Sfn Zakir Hussain, former President of India, said, "Thirukkural is a treasure house of worldly knowledge, ethical guidance and spiritual wisdom."Template:Sfn
Inscriptions and other historical records
The Tirukkuṟaḷ remained the chief administrative text of the Kongu Nadu region of the medieval Tamil land.Template:Sfn Kural inscriptions and other historical records are found across Tamil Nadu. The 15th-century Jain inscriptions in the Ponsorimalai near Mallur in Salem district bear couplet 251 from the "Shunning meat" chapter of the Kural text, indicating that the people of the Kongu Nadu region practiced ahimsa and non-killing as chief virtues.Template:Sfn Other inscriptions include the 1617 CE Poondurai Nattar scroll in Kongu Nadu, the 1798 CE Palladam Angala Parameshwari Kodai copper inscriptions in Naranapuram in Kongu Nadu, the 18th-century copper inscriptions found in Kapilamalai near Kapilakkuricchi town in Namakkal district, Veeramudiyalar mutt copper inscriptions in Palani, Karaiyur copper inscription in Kongu Nadu, Palaiyakottai records, and the 1818 Periya Palayathamman temple inscriptions by Francis Ellis at Royapettah in Chennai.Template:Sfn
Popular culture
Various portraits of Valluvar have been drawn and used by the Shivaite and Jain communities of Tamil Nadu since ancient times. These portraits appeared in various poses, with Valluvar's appearance varying from matted hair to fully shaven head. The portrait of Valluvar with matted hair and a flowing beard, as drawn by artist K. R. Venugopal Sharma in 1960, was accepted by the state and central governments as an official version.Template:Sfn It soon became a popular and the most ubiquitous modern portrait of the poet.Template:Sfn In 1964, the image was unveiled in the Indian Parliament by the then President of India Zakir Hussain. In 1967, the Tamil Nadu government passed an order stating that the image of Valluvar should be present in all government offices across the state of Tamil Nadu.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref label
The Kural does not appear to have been set in music by Valluvar. However, a number of musicians have set it to tune and several singers have rendered it in their concerts. Modern composers who have tuned the Kural couplets include Mayuram Viswanatha Sastri and Bharadwaj. Singers who have performed full-fledged Tirukkuṟaḷ concerts include M. M. Dandapani Desikar and Chidambaram C. S. Jayaraman.Template:Sfn Madurai Somasundaram and Sanjay Subramanian are other people who have given musical rendering of the Kural. Mayuram Vishwanatha Shastri set all the verses to music in the early 20th century.Template:Sfn In January 2016, Chitravina N. Ravikiran set the entire 1330 verses to music in a record time of 16 hours.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In 1818, the then Collector of Madras Francis Whyte Ellis issued a gold coin bearing Valluvar's image.Template:SfnTemplate:Ref labelTemplate:Ref label In the late 19th century, the South Indian saint 'Vallalar' Ramalinga Swamigal taught the Kural's message by conducting regular Kural classes to the masses.Template:Sfn In 1968, the Tamil Nadu government made it mandatory to display a Kural couplet in all government buses. The train running a distance of 2,921 kilometers between Kanyakumari and New Delhi is named by the Indian Railways as the Thirukural Express.Template:Sfn
The Kural is part of Tamil people's everyday life across the global Tamil diaspora. K. Balachander's Kavithalayaa Productions opened its films with the very first couplet of the Kural sung in the background.Template:Sfn Kural's phrases and ideas are found in numerous songs of Tamil movies.Template:Sfn Several Tirukkuṟaḷ conferences were conducted in the twentieth century, such as those by Tirukkural V. Munusamy in 1941Template:Sfn and by Periyar E. V. Ramasamy in 1949.Template:Sfn These were attended by several scholars, celebrities and politicians.Template:Sfn The Kural's couplets and thoughts are also widely employed in visual arts,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn music,Template:Sfn dance,Template:Sfn street shows,Template:Sfn recitals,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn activities,Template:Sfn and puzzles and riddles.Template:Sfn The couplets are frequently quoted by various political leaders even in pan-Indian contexts outside the Tamil diaspora, including Ram Nath Kovind,Template:Sfn P. Chidambaram,Template:Sfn and Nirmala Sitaraman.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn When Jallikattu aficionados claimed that the sport is only to demonstrate the "Tamil love for the bull", the then Indian Minister of Women and Child Development Maneka Gandhi denied the claim citing that the Tirukkural does not sanction cruelty to animals.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi has quoted the couplets on several occasions, including his recital to the Indian armed forces in 2020.Template:Sfn The Kural literature is one of the ancient texts from which the Economic Survey of India, the official annual report of the state of India's economy, draws heavy references.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Temples and memorials
Template:Multiple image The Kural text and its author have been highly venerated over the centuries. In the early 16th century, the Shaiva Hindu community built a temple within the Ekambareeswara-Kamakshi (Shiva-Parvati) temple complex in Mylapore, Chennai, in honor of the Tirukkuṟaḷ's author, Valluvar.Template:Sfn The locals believe that this is where Valluvar was born, underneath a tree within the shrine's complex. A Valluvar statue in yoga position holding a palm leaf manuscript of the Tirukkuṟaḷ sits under the tree.Template:Sfn In the shrine dedicated to him, Valluvar's wife Vasukiamma is patterned after the Hindu deity Kamakshi inside the sanctum. The temple shikhara (spire) above the sanctum shows scenes of Hindu life and deities, along with Valluvar reading his couplets to his wife.Template:Sfn The sthala vriksham (holy tree of the temple) at the temple is the oil-nut or iluppai tree under which Valluvar is believed to have been born.Template:Sfn The temple was extensively renovated in the 1970s.Template:Sfn
Additional Valluvar shrines in South India are found at Tiruchuli,Template:Sfn Periya Kalayamputhur, Thondi, Kanjoor Thattanpady, Senapathy, and Vilvarani.Template:Sfn Many of these communities, including those in Mylapore and Tiruchuli, consider Valluvar as the 64th Nayanmar of the Saivite tradition and worship him as god and saint.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
In 1976, Valluvar Kottam, a monument to honor the Kural literature and its author, was constructed in Chennai.Template:Sfn The chief element of the monument includes a Template:Convert chariot, a replica of the chariot in the temple town of Thiruvarur, and it contains a life-size statue of Valluvar. Around the chariot's perimeter are marble plates inscribed with Tirukkuṟaḷ couplets.Template:Sfn All the 1,330 verses of the Kural text are inscribed on bas-relief in the corridors in the main hall.Template:Sfn
Statues of Valluvar have been erected across the globe, including the ones at Kanyakumari, Chennai, Bengaluru, Pondicherry, Vishakapatnam, Haridwar, Puttalam, Singapore, London and Taiwan.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The tallest of these is the Template:Convert stone statue of Valluvar erected in 2000 atop a small island in the town of Kanyakumari on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, at the confluence of the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, and the Indian Ocean.Template:Sfn This statue is currently India's 25th tallest. A life-size statue of Valluvar is one among an array of statues installed by the Tamil Nadu government on the stretch of the Marina Beach.Template:Sfn
Legacy
The Kural remains one of the most influential Tamil texts admired by generations of scholars.Template:Sfn The work has inspired Tamil culture and people from all walks of life, generating parallels in the literature of various languages within the Indian subcontinent.Template:Sfn Its translations into European languages starting from the early 18th century made the work known globally.Template:Sfn Authors influenced by the Kural include Ilango Adigal, Seethalai Satthanar, Sekkilar, Kambar, Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, Albert Schweitzer, Ramalinga Swamigal, E. S. Ariel, Constantius Joseph Beschi, Karl Graul, August Friedrich Caemmerer, Nathaniel Edward Kindersley, Francis Whyte Ellis, Charles E. Gover, George Uglow Pope, Vinoba Bhave, Alexander Piatigorsky, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, and Yu Hsi. Many of these authors have translated the work into their languages.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The Kural is an oft-quoted Tamil work.Template:Sfn Classical Tamil works such as the Purananuru, Manimekalai, Silappathikaram, Periya Puranam, and Kamba Ramayanam all cite the Kural by various names, bestowing numerous titles to the work that was originally untitled by its author.Template:Sfn Kural couplets and thoughts are cited in 32 instances in the Purananuru, 35 in Purapporul Venba Maalai, 1 each in Pathittrupatthu and the Ten Idylls, 13 in the Silappathikaram, 91 in the Manimekalai, 20 in Jivaka Chinthamani, 12 in Villi Bharatham, 7 in Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam, and 4 in Kanda Puranam.Template:Sfn In Kamba Ramayanam, poet Kambar has used Kural ideas in as many as 600 instances.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The work is commonly quoted in vegetarian conferences, both in India and abroad.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The Kural text was first included in the school syllabus by the colonial-era British government.Template:Sfn However, only select 275 couplets had been taught to the schoolchildren from Standards III through XII.Template:Sfn Attempts to include the Kural literature as a compulsory subject in schools were ineffective in the decades following Indian Independence.Template:Sfn On 26 April 2016, the Madras High Court directed the Tamil Nadu state government to include all the 108 chapters of the Books of Aram and Porul of the Kural text in school syllabus for classes VI through XII from the academic year 2017–2018 "to build a nation with moral values."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The court further observed, "No other philosophical or religious work has such moral and intellectual approach to problems of life."Template:Sfn
The Kural has inspired many, including Mahatma Gandhi, to pursue the path of ahimsa or non-violence.Template:Sfn Leo Tolstoy was inspired by the concept of non-violence found in the Kural when he read a German version of the book, who in turn instilled the concept in Mahatma Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi sought his guidance.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Gandhi then took to studying the Kural in prison, which eventually culminated in his starting the non-violence movement to fight against the ruling British government.Template:Sfn The 19th-century poet-saint 'Vallalar' Ramalinga Swamigal was inspired by the Kural at a young age, who then spent his life promoting compassion and non-violence, emphasizing on non-killing and meatless way of life.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
See also
- Eastern philosophy
- List of historic Indian texts
- A Letter to a Hindu by Leo Tolstoy
- Tao Te Ching
- Manu Smriti
- Vedas
Template:Colend Template:Hidden begin Template:Jain philosophy Template:Hindu philosophy Template:Asian philosophy sidebar Template:Hidden end
Notes
Template:Refbegin a. Template:Note label The Kural strictly insists on moral vegetarianism,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn the doctrine that humans are morally obligated to refrain from eating meat or harming sentient beings,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn which is equated to veganism of today.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The concept of ahimsa or Template:Lang, which remains the moral foundation of vegetarianism and veganism, is described in the Kural chapter on non-violence (Chapter 32).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn For modern philosophers' take on this, see, for example, Engel's "The Immorality of Eating Meat" (2000).Template:Sfn
b. Template:Note label For examples of Sanskrit loan words, see Zvelebil's The Smile of Murugan.Template:Sfn
c. Template:Note label The Valluvar Year is obtained by adding 31 years to the present Gregorian year.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
d. Template:Note label Nallaswamy Pillai declares Pope's claim as "an absurd literary anachronism" and says that the first two books of the Kural in particular are "a stumbling block which can browbeat the most sublime ideas of Christian morality."Template:Sfn John Lazarus observes that, in stark contrast to the Bible's concept of killing, which refers only to the taking away of human life, the Kural's concept of killing "deals exclusively with the literal taking away of life"Template:Sfn and thus applies to both humans and animals.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
e. Template:Note label Quote: "Non-killing is an absolute virtue (aram) in the Arattuppal (the glory of virtue section), but the army's duty is to kill in battle and the king has to execute a number of criminals in the process of justice. In these cases, the violations of the aram [in the earlier section] are justified [by Thiruvalluvar] in virtue of the special duties cast on the king and the justification is that 'a few wicked must be weeded out to save the general public' (TK 550)."Template:Sfn
f. Template:Note label The couplets are generally numbered in a linear fashion across the three books, covering all the 1,330 couplets. They can also be denoted by their chapter number and couplet number within the chapter. Thus, the third couplet in Chapter 104 (Agriculture), for instance, can be numbered either as 1033 or, less commonly, as 104:3. Since the medieval commentators have variously changed the chapter ordering within the books of the Kural text and couplet ordering within the chapters, the present numbering of the chapters and couplets is not the author's.Template:Sfn
g. Template:Note label Avvaiyar's Gnanakural and Umapathi Shivachariyar's Tiruvarutpayan, both of which appeared centuries later, further the ideas of the Kural's chapters on veedu or moksha and are considered as Veettuppāl (Books of Salvation).Template:Sfn
h. Template:Note label The doctrine of nishkama karma in Hinduism states that the dharmic householder can achieve the same goals as the renouncing monk through "inner renunciation", that is "motiveless action."Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Cf. Kural 629: "He who never exulted in joy will not be depressed by sorrow."Template:Sfn This is recommended by the Bhagavad Gita as well, which discusses and synthesizes the three dominant trends in Hinduism, namely, enlightenment-based renunciation, dharma-based householder life, and devotion-based theism, and this synthetic answer of the Gita recommends that one must resist the "either–or" view, and consider a "both–and" view.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
i. Template:Note label As observed by P. S. Sundaram in the introduction to his work, while "all other sins may be redeemed, but never ingratitude," Valluvar couldn't understand "how anyone could wish to fatten himself by feeding on the fat of others."Template:Sfn
j. Template:Note label Commentary – sometimes referred to as bhashya in the Indian tradition – refers to explanations and interpretations of aphoristic texts. These are written by various scholars to develop, comment on and expound the terse ideas such as a kural or a sutra or any text of significant significance (e.g. Jain, Hindu and Buddhist scriptures).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn
k. Template:Note label Compare this with Chapter 7 of the Tirukkuṟaḷ—the Kural chapter on bearing children.Template:Sfn
l. Template:Note label Government of Tamil Nadu, G. O. Ms. 1193, dated 1967.Template:Sfn
m. Template:Note label A stone inscription found on the walls of a well at the Periya Palayathamman temple at Royapettai indicates Ellis' regard for Valluvar. It is one of the 27 wells dug on the orders of Ellis in 1818, when Madras suffered a severe drinking water shortage. In the long inscription Ellis praises Valluvar and uses a couplet from the Tirukkuṟaḷ to explain his actions during the drought. When he was in charge of the Madras treasury and mint, he also issued a gold coin bearing Valluvar's image. The Tamil inscription on his grave makes note of his commentary of Tirukkuṟaḷ.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
n. Template:Note label The original inscription in Tamil written in the asiriyapa metre and first-person perspective: (The kural couplet he quotes is in italics)Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
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Citations
References
Classical primary sources (Tamil)
- Kḻuvāi Illai!{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}, புறநானூறு [Puranānuru] (Verse 34), See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
- Template:Cite wikisource
- Ilango Adigal, சிலப்பதிகாரம் [Silappathigāram], See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
- Kambar, கம்பராமாயணம் [Kambarāmāyanam], See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
- திருவள்ளுவர் திருக்குறள் மணக்குடவருரை—அறத்துப்பால் [Tiruvalluvar Tirukkural Manakkudavar Commentary—Book of Aram]. V. O. C. Pillai (Ed.)'{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. 152 pp.(1917)
- திருக்குறள் மணக்குடவர் உரை [Tirukkural Manakkudavar Commentary]. C. Meiyyappan (Ed.)'{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Manivasagar Padhippagam. 370 pp.(2003)
- திருக்குறள் மூலமும் பரிமேலழகர் உரையும் [Tirukkural Original Text and Parimelalhagar Commentary]. Compiled by V. M. Gopalakrishnamachariyar'{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Uma Padhippagam. 1456 pp.(2009)
- Seethalai Sāthanār, மணிமேகலை [Manimekalai], See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
- Sekkiḻar, பெரிய புராணம் [Periya Puranam], See original text in Tamil Virtual University.
- Template:Cite wikisource See original text in Project Madurai.
Modern secondary sources
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- Print, folklore, and nationalism in colonial South India{{#if:Blackburn|, Blackburn}. Orient Blackswan(2006). ISBN 978-8178241494
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- திருக்குறள் அழகும் அமைப்பும் [Tirukkural: Beauty and Structure]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Tamil Valarcchi Iyakkam(1969)
- Encyclopaedia of Tamil Literature{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Institute of Asian Studies(1990)
- திருக்குறள் வாழ்வியல் விளக்கவுரை [Tirukkural life-skill exegesis]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Paavendhar Padhippagam(2018). ISBN 978-8193825013
- திருக்குறளின் உண்மைப் பொருள் [The true meaning of the Tirukkural]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Thangam Padhippagam(2018)
- Ambrosia of Thirukkural{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Abhinav Publications(1997). ISBN 978-8170173465
- திருக்குறள், ஆராய்ச்சிப் பதிப்பு [Tirukkural, Research Edition]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Ramakrishna Mission Vidhyalayam(2014)
- A Plea for the Animals: The Moral, Philosophical, and Evolutionary Imperative to Treat All Beings with Compassion{{#if:Ricard|, Ricard}. Shambhala(2016). ISBN 978-1611803051
- திருக்குறள் ஆய்வுமாலை [Tirukkural Research Papers]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Tamil University(2013). ISBN 978-8170904359
- பதினெண்கீழ்கணக்கு நூல்கள் [Eighteen Lesser Texts]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Saradha Pathippagam(2012)
- அகநானூறு, புறநானூறு [Agananuru, Purananuru]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Saradha Pathippagam(2012)
- Meditations on Gandhi : a Ravindra Varma festschrift. Concept.
- உலகத் தமிழிலக்கிய வரலாறு (தொன்மை முதல் கி.பி.500 வரை) [History of World Tamil Literature: Antiquity to 500 CE]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. International Institute of Tamil Studies(2004)
- Morality and Ethics in Public Life{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Mittal Publications(1999). ISBN 978-8170997153
- திருக்குறள் வ.உ.சிதம்பரனார் உரை [Tirukkural: V. O. Chidhambaram Commentary]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Pari Nilayam(2008)
- Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot{{#if:Lal|, Lal}. Sahitya Akademi(1992). ISBN 978-8126012213
- Tamil Literature{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. International Institute of Tamil Studies(2015)
- Oppilakkiya Nokkil Sanga Kaalam [Sangam Period from a Comparative Study Perspective]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Macmillan India Limited(1985)
- இக்கால உலகிற்குத் திருக்குறள் [Tirukkural for Contemporary World] (Volume 3){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. International Institute of Tamil Studies(2004)
- Tiruvalluvar{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Sahitya Akademi(2017). ISBN 978-8126053216
- Essays and Tributes on Tirukkural (1886–1986 AD){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. International Institute of Tamil Studies(2009)
- A dictionary of Indian literature{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Orient Blackswan(1999). ISBN 978-8125014539
- Thirukkural: Aratthuppaal{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Uma Padhippagam(2008)
- திருக்குறள் நாவலர் தெளிவுரை (Tirukkural Navalar Commentary){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Navalar Nedunchezhiyan Kalvi Arakkattalai(1991)
- திருக்குறளின் தனிச்சிறப்புகள் [Unique features of the Tirukkural]{{#if:Iraikuruvanar|, Iraikuruvanar}. Iraiyagam(2009)
- The Tale of an Anklet: An Epic of South India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Columbia University Press(1993). ISBN 978-0231078498
- திருக்குறள் [Tirukkural: Tamil Traditional Commentary]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Sri Indhu Publications(2017)
- பெருஞ்சித்திரனார் திருக்குறள் மெய்ப்பொருளுரை: உரைச் சுருக்கம் [Perunchithiranar's Thirukkural A Philosophical Brief Commentary] (Volume 1){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Then Mozhi Padippagam(1933)
- Tamil literature{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Asian Education Service(1994). ISBN 8120609557
- The Sacred Kurral of Tiruvalluva Nayanar{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Asian Educational Services(1886). ISBN 8120600223
- The Sacred Kural{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}(1931)
- quoted in K. Muragesa Mudaliar's "Polity in Tirukkural"{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Thirumathi Sornammal Endowment Lectures on Tirukkural(n.d.)
- Thirukkural: Pearls of Inspiration{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rupa Publications(2009)
- Glory of Thirukkural{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. International Institute of Tamil Studies(2015). ISBN 978-9385165955
- பாமரருக்கும் பரிமேலழகர் [Parimelazhagar for Laymen]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Sandhya Publications(2018). ISBN 978-9387499454
- Readings from Thirukkural{{#if:Das|, Das}. Abhinav Publications(1997). ISBN 8170173426
- Thirukkuralil Siddhar Neri{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Bharati Puthakalayam(1994)
- On Translating Tirukkural{{#if:Ramasamy|, Ramasamy}. International Institute of Tamil Studies(2001)
- Tamil Wisdom; Traditions Concerning Hindu Sages, and Selections from their writings{{#if:Robinson|, Robinson}. Wesleyan Conference Office(2001)
- திருக்குறளின் தனிச்சிறப்புக்கள் [Tirukkural Specialities]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Iraiyagam(2009)
- First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. University of Madras(2006)
- Thirumathi Sornammal Endowment Lectures on Tirukkural 1959–60 to 1968–69, Part 1{{#if:Thani Nayagam|, Thani Nayagam}. University of Madras(1971)
- Hinduism and Nature{{#if:Krishna|, Krishna}. Penguin Random House(2017). ISBN 978-9387326545
- திருவள்ளுவர் நூல்நயம் [Thiruvalluvar Noolnayam]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Kazhaga Veliyeedu(1956)
- திருக்குறள் அமைப்பும் முறையும் [The structure and method of Tirukkural]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. University of Madras(1972)
- Developing a Sustainability Mindset in Management Education{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2018). ISBN 978-1783537273
- திருக்குறளிலே கலைபற்றிக் கூறாததேன்? [Why does the Tirukkural not speak about art?]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Poonkodi Padhippagam(1974)
- Kural (Tiruvalluvar){{#if:Sundaram|, Sundaram}. Penguin Books(1987). ISBN 978-9351180159
- Kural (Tiruvalluvar){{#if:Sundaram|, Sundaram}. Penguin Books(1990). ISBN 978-9351180159
- The Bhagavad-gītā{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(1973). ISBN 978-0195016666
- Indian Thoughts and Its Development{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Read Books(2013). ISBN 978-1473389007
- குறளமுதம் [Kural Ambrosia]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Tamil Valarcchi Iyakkagam(2000)
- திருவள்ளுவ மாலை மூலமும் எளிய உரை விளக்கமும் [Tiruvalluvamaalai: Original Text and Lucid Commentary]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Manimekalai Prasuram(2017)
- Tirukkural—Valluvar: Collected Works of Thanthai Periyar E. V. Ramasamy{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. The Periyar Self-Respect Propaganda Institution(2015). ISBN 978-9380971919
- தமிழனின் தத்துவம் திருக்குறள் அறம் [The Tamil's Philosophy: Tirukkural Virtue]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Notion Press(2016). ISBN 978-9386073747
- The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India{{#if:Zvelebil|, Zvelebil}. E.J. Brill(1973). ISBN 9004035915
- Tamil Literature{{#if:Zvelebil|, Zvelebil}. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag(1974). ISBN 978-3447015820
- Tamil Literature{{#if:Zvelebil|, Zvelebil}. E.J. Brill(1975). ISBN 9004041907
- Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature{{#if:Zvelebil|, Zvelebil}. E.J. Brill(1992). ISBN 978-9004093652
- '"The Immorality of Eating Meat," in The Moral Life: An Introductory Reader in Ethics and Literature, (Louis P. Pojman, ed.)'{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2000)
- Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(2012). ISBN 978-1107017368
- Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2004). ISBN 978-0195156638
- Thirukkural: Couplets with English Transliteration and Meaning{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Shree Shenbaga Pathippagam(2012)
- Harmony of Religions: Vedānta Siddhānta Samarasam of Tāyumānavar{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(1993). ISBN 978-8120810013
- 'Entry "bhasya", In: A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(2002)
- History of Sanskrit Poetics{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(2015). ISBN 978-8120802742
- Military Thoughts of Tiruvaḷḷuvar{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Darbari Udjog(1981)
- Der Kural des Tiruvalluver. Ein gnomisches Gedicht über die drei Strebeziele des Menschen (Bibliotheca Tamulica sive Opera Praecipia Tamuliensium, Volume 3){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Williams & Norgate(1856)
- திருக்குறள் ஆய்வுக் கோவை [Tirukkural Research Compendium]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Manivasagar Padhippagam(2015)
- A comprehensive Tamil and English dictionary of high and low Tamil{{#if:Winslow|, Winslow}. P. R. Hunt(1862)
- Madras Rediscovered{{#if:Muthiah|, Muthiah}. EastWest(2014). ISBN 978-9384030285
- Why Should Thirukkural Be Declared the National Book of India?{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Unique Media Integrators(2017). ISBN 978-9385471704
- Thirukkural (Original in Tamil with English Translation){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. W.P. Chettiar(1885). ISBN 8120604008
- Kuralamizhdham{{#if:Tamilarasu|, Tamilarasu}. Arutchudar Anbar Group(2014)
- வள்ளுவம் வாழ்ந்த வள்ளலார் [Valluvam Vaalndha Vallalar]{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Unique Media Integrators(2015). ISBN 978-9383051953
- A Compendium of Tirukkural Translations in English{{#if:Manavalan|, Manavalan}. Central Institute of Classical Tamil(2010). ISBN 978-8190800020
- Secular Virtue: for surviving, thriving, and fulfillment{{#if:Walsh|, Walsh}. Will Walsh(2018). ISBN 978-0692054185
Journals and Magazines
- Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural. East and West({Template:Year).
- Arupathu Moovar – 110 years ago. Madras Musings({Template:Date).
- Corruption and Redemption: The Legend of Valluvar and Tamil Literary History. Modern Asian Studies({Template:Year).
- Veganism, a superior way of life. Business Economics({Template:Date).
- Template:Cite SSRN
- Thiruvalluvar's shrine. Madras Musings({Template:Date).
- Interpreting Thirukkural: the role of commentary in the creation of a text. The Journal of the American Oriental Society({Template:Year).
- Medicine in Thirukkural, The Universal Veda of Tamil Literature. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress({Template:Year).
- The Desire You Are Required to Get Rid of: A Functionalist Analysis of Desire in the Bhagavadgītā. Philosophy East and West({Template:Year).
- Dalits and Non-Brahmin Consciousness in Colonial Tamil Nadu. Economic and Political Weekly({Template:Year).
- Thiruvalluvar's Vision: Polity and Economy in Thirukkural. History of Political Economy({Template:Year).
- A Note on the Individual and His Status in Indian Thought. Philosophy East and West({Template:Year).
- The Production of Philosophical Literature in South Asia during the Pre-Colonial Period (15th to 18th Centuries): The Case of the Nyāyasūtra Commentarial Tradition. Journal of Indian Philosophy({Template:Year).
- வரலாற்றுப் பிழை [A blunder in history]. Tughluq [Tamil]({Template:Date).
- A Tamil classic on statecraft. Australian Outlook({Template:Year).
- The Political Ideology of the Kural. The Indian Journal of Political Science({Template:Year).
- Thiruvalluvar Ninaivu Malar({Template:Year).
Newspapers
- Madras High Court makes in-depth study of Tirukkural compulsory in schools(27 April 2016).
- Neglect leading Valluvar Kottam to ruin. The Times of India(18 July 2018). Retrieved 12 October 2018.
- Saint poet's guru pooja at Tiruchuli. The New Indian Express(11 March 2013). Retrieved 3 September 2020.
- A customs officer and the true import of Kural. The Hindu(2 October 2017). Retrieved 26 April 2020.
- PM Modi quotes from 'Tirukkural' again, now for soldiers in Ladakh. Business Line(3 July 2020). Retrieved 27 May 2021.
- First printed Tirukkural to be republished after 168 years. The Hindu(3 October 2018). Retrieved 5 October 2018.
- Indian epics vs. Western philosophy. The Hindu(14 August 2012). Retrieved 21 January 2021.
- 102 மொழிகளில் திருக்குறள்: செம்மொழி நிறுவனம் முயற்சி. Dinamalar(20 October 2021). Retrieved 20 October 2021.
- From merchant to Tirukkural scholar. The Hindu(18 October 2015). Retrieved 9 July 2017.
- Divided by language and culture, united by love for Tirukkural. The Hindu(26 August 2016). Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- The benefits of nishkama karma. The Economic Times(22 September 2005). Retrieved 21 January 2021.
- Budget 2020: What is Thirukkural and who was Thiruvalluvar that Nirmala Sitharaman cited in her speech?. Times Now(1 February 2020). Retrieved 19 June 2021.
- Tamil saw its first book in 1578. The Hindu(21 June 2010). Retrieved 28 May 2017.
- Economic Survey 2020 draws heavy references from Kautilya's Arthashashtra. Business Today(31 January 2020). Retrieved 19 June 2021.
- Union Budget: Nirmala recites once again from Thirukural; Stalin reminds her of another one on kings. Deccan Herald(1 February 2021). Retrieved 27 May 2021.
- Thirukkural couplets now in Brahmi Tamizhi script. The New Indian Express(12 December 2012). Retrieved 13 December 2018.
- When Economic Survey quoted Arthashastra, Thirukural. Outlook(31 January 2020). Retrieved 19 June 2021.
- [{{{url}}} திருக்குறளில் இந்து சமயக் கொள்கைகள்! [Hindu philosophies in the Tirukkural]]. Dinamalar(23 December 2018).
- Couplets for modern times. The Hindu(12 December 2015). Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- 'Thirukkural' makes a comeback. Deccan Herald(2 February 2020). Retrieved 27 May 2021.
- An exercise to the tune of Tirukkural. The Hindu(4 September 2006). Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- As a war of words rages outside, peace reigns inside this temple. The Hindu(15 November 2019). Retrieved 5 January 2020.
- Justifying jallikattu by citing Thirukkural is self-defeating: The Tamil text didn't condone animal cruelty. Firstpost(7 March 2017). Retrieved 11 February 2022.
- Knowing the truth of Thirukkural. Business Economics(16 March 2017). Retrieved 11 February 2022.
- Under the spell of the Kural. The Hindu(20 November 2014). Retrieved 11 June 2021.
- Giving an artistic touch to Thirukkural. The Hindu(11 August 2020). Retrieved 30 April 2021.
- Giving an artistic touch to Thirukkural. The Times of India(14 April 2021). Retrieved 30 April 2021.
- Thiruvalluvar's religion a subject of scholarly debate. The Hindu(6 November 2019). Retrieved 28 December 2019.
- A musical bridge across eras. The Hindu(19 March 2016). Retrieved 29 July 2018.
- A monk's love for Thirukkural. The Hindu(29 July 2017). Retrieved 6 Aug 2017.
- Include 108 chapters of 'Thirukkural' in school syllabus, HC tells govt. The Times of India(27 April 2016). Retrieved 6 November 2018.
- Finding a new pattern in Tirukkural. The Hindu(11 July 2016). Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- Teach Thirukkural to next generation: high court judge. The Times of India(26 July 2017). Retrieved 6 November 2018.
- Gita, Veda, Thirukkural, Adam Smith...survey of great thoughts. The Times of India(1 February 2020). Retrieved 19 June 2021.
- Economic Survey draws from wealth of ideas in Tirukkural. The Hindu(1 February 2020). Retrieved 19 June 2021.
- Tirukkural – essence of all scriptures. The Hindu(12 January 2018). Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- Tirukkural as way of life. The Hindu(22 April 2010). Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- Tamil couplets set to dance. The Hindu(26 April 2018). Retrieved 5 September 2018.
- Thiruvalluvar Day 2020: History, significance and all you need to know about the iconic poet. Hindustan Times(16 January 2020). Retrieved 21 September 2020.
- There's no stopping him. Deccan Herald(31 March 2018). Retrieved 29 July 2018.
- High Court orders in-depth study of Tirukkural compulsory in schools. The Hindu(27 April 2016). Retrieved 6 November 2018.
- பொலிவிழந்து வரும் மயிலாப்பூர் திருவள்ளுவர் கோயில்!. Dinamani(20 September 2012). Retrieved 2 March 2019.
- Returning to the classic commentary of Thirukkural. The Times of India(1 November 2021). Retrieved 1 November 2021.
- Thirukkural now in Arabic. The Hindu(25 March 2013). Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- CM unveils Thiruvalluvar statue. The Hindu(2 January 2000). Retrieved 24 December 2016.
- திருக்குறளில் இல்லாதது எதுவும் இல்லை: திருவள்ளுவர் விருது பெற்ற தைவான் கவிஞர் யூசி பேச்சு. The Hindu (Tamil)(16 January 2014). Retrieved 6 August 2021.
- 'Thirukkural inspired Gandhi to adopt non-violence'. The Hindu(14 February 2015). Retrieved 18 March 2022.
Online
- 30 ஆண்டு தவத்தில் கிடைத்த வள்ளுவர்! [Valluvar obtained after a 30-year penance], Anbarasan, Komal. Minnambalam(16 January 2019). Retrieved 17 January 2019.
- Kural – Uttaraveda, Chakravarthy Nainar, A.. Jain Samaj. Ahimsa Foundation(1953). Retrieved 15 June 2022.
- திருவள்ளுவரின் வேறு பெயர்கள் [Other names of Tiruvalluvar]. TamilVU.org. Tamil Virtual University(n.d.). Retrieved 6 February 2022.
- Kuralism, Anparasu, Umapathy. Kuralism(23 January 2019). Retrieved 5 March 2019.
- Teach Thirukkural in schools to build a Nation with Moral Values, Madras HC tells Govt, Ashok, K. M.. LiveLaw.in(1 May 2016). Retrieved 6 November 2018.
- Vattezhuthil Thirukkural{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Madras Christian College(1976)
- Tirukkural in Ancient Scripts{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Madras Christian College(1980)
- The Golden coin depicting Thiruvalluvar -2, Mahadevan, Iravatham. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- Veganism in India and its Growth Over the Years Into a Formidable Movement, The Vegan Indians(26 June 2021). Retrieved 23 August 2021.
- Music Academy Conference lectures, The Music Academy. Musicacademymadras.in. The Music Academy. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
- [{{{url}}} Tirukkural V. Munusamy], Periyannan, G.. All India Tamil Writers' Association(5 September 2013).
- A Letter to A Hindu: The Subjection of India—Its Cause and Cure, Tolstoy, Leo. The Literature Network(14 December 1908). Retrieved 12 February 2012.
- Tirukkural Super Fast Express. Indian Rail Info(n.d.). Retrieved 14 October 2018.
- Vegetarianism in Tamil Literature, Meenakshi Sundaram, T. P.. 15th World Vegetarian Congress 1957. International Vegetarian Union (IVU)(1957). Retrieved 17 April 2022.
Further reading
- Stuart Blackburn, "The Legend of Valluvar and Tamil Literary History," Modern Asian Studies 34, 2 (May, 2000): 459.
- Diaz, S. M. (2000). Tirukkural with English Translation and Explanation. (Mahalingam, N., General Editor; 2 volumes), Coimbatore, India: Ramanandha Adigalar Foundation.
- Gnanasambandan, A. S. (1994). Kural Kanda Vaazhvu. Chennai: Gangai Puthaga Nilayam.
- Udaiyar Koil Guna. (n.d.). திருக்குறள் ஒரு தேசிய நூல் [Tirukkural: A National Book] (Pub. No. 772). Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies.
- Karunanidhi, M. (1996). Kuraloviam. Chennai: Thirumagal Nilayam.
- Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim. (1971). Anti-religious Movement in Modern South India (in German). Bonn, Germany: Ludwig Roehrscheid Publication, pp. 128–133.
- Kuppusamy, R. (n.d.). Tirukkural: Thatthuva, Yoga, Gnyana Urai [Hardbound]. Salem: Leela Padhippagam. 1067 pp. https://vallalars.blogspot.in/2017/05/thirukkural-thathuva-yoga-gnayna-urai.html
- Nagaswamy, R. Tirukkural: An Abridgement of Sastras. Mumbai: Giri, Template:ISBN.
- Nehring, Andreas. (2003). Orientalism and Mission (in German). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz Publication.
- M. S. Purnalingam Pillai. (n.d.). Critical Studies in Kural. Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies.
- Smith, Jason W. "The Implied Imperative: Poetry as Ethics in the Proverbs of the Tirukkuṟaḷ". Journal of Religious Ethics 50, no. 1 (2022): 123-145.
- Subramaniyam, Ka Naa. (1987). Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith.
- Thirukkural with English Couplets L'Auberson, Switzerland: Editions ASSA, Template:ISBN.
- Thirunavukkarasu, K. D. (1973). Tributes to Tirukkural: A compilation. In: First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers. Madras: University of Madras Press. pp. 124.
- Varadharasan, Mu. (1974). Thirukkual Alladhu Vaazhkkai Vilakkam. Chennai: Pari Nilayam.
- Varadharasan, Mu. (1996). Tamil Ilakkiya Varalaru. New Delhi: Sakitya Academy.
- Viswanathan, R. (2011). Thirukkural: Universal Tamil Scripture (Along with the Commentary of Parimelazhagar in English) (Including Text in Tamil and Roman). New Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 278 pp. Template:ISBN
- Yogi Shuddhananda Bharati (Trans.). (15 May 1995). Thirukkural with English Couplets. Chennai: Tamil Chandror Peravai.
- Zvelebil, K. (1962). Foreword. In: Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar (Translated by K. M. Balasubramaniam). Madras: Manali Lakshmana Mudaliar Specific Endowments. 327 pages.
External links
- Tirukkural: Work by Tiruvalluvar from Encyclopædia Britannica
- G. U. Pope's English Translation of the Tirukkural
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