Hindu denominations

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Template:Mcn Hindu denominations, sampradayas, traditions, movements, and sects are traditions and sub-traditions within Hinduism centered on one or more gods or goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and so on.[1] The term sampradaya is used for branches with a particular founder-guru with a particular philosophy.Template:Sfn

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority, and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.Template:Sfn Four major traditions are, however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.[1]Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn These are sometimes referred to as the denominations of Hinduism, and they differ in the primary deity at the centre of each tradition.[2]

A notable feature of Hindu denominations is that they do not deny other concepts of the divine or deity, and often celebrate the other as henotheistic equivalents.[3] The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".Template:Sfn

Although Hinduism contains many denominations and philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, pilgrimage to sacred sites and the questioning of authority.Template:Sfn

Etymology

The word Hindu is an exonym. This word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means "a large body of water", covering "river, ocean". It was used as the name of the Indus River and also referred to its tributaries. The actual term 'Hindu' first occurs, states Gavin Flood, as "a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)". Hindus are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent. In the 18th century, European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus until about mid 20th century. Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.Template:Sfn[4][5]

Overview of Denominations

Hinduism, as it is commonly known, can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent.[6] Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti) and Smartism (five deities treated as same).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of various philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such as moksha, dharma, karma, samsara, ethical precepts such as ahimsa, texts (Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar and rites of passage.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Six generic types (McDaniel)

McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic types of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:[7]

Sampradaya

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In Hinduism, a sampradaya (IAST Template:IAST)Template:Efn is a denomination.Template:Sfn These are teaching traditions with autonomous practices and monastic centers, with a guru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers.Template:Sfn A particular guru lineage is called parampara. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the parampara of a living guru, one belongs to its proper sampradaya.

Number of adherents

Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, Template:As of)[8]
Tradition Followers
Vaishnavism 399,526,000
Shaivism 385,423,000
Shaktism 305,643,000
Neo-Hinduism 20,300,000
Reform Hinduism 5,200,000
Cumulative 1,116,092,000

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.[9]

Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2020 estimate by The World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University’s Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 399 million Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 385 million Hindus, Shaktism with 305 million Hindus and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million Hindus.[10] In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.Template:Sfn

Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[11] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius J. Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.Template:Sfn

Main denominations

Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism focuses on Vishnu or one of his avatars, such as his form as a human, lion, or boar.

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Vaishnavism is a devotional stream of Hinduism that worships the god Vishnu as the Supreme Lord (Svayam Bhagavan). In addition to Vishnu, adherents worship Vishnu's ten incarnations (i.e., the Dashavatara).Template:Sfn The two most-worshipped incarnations of Vishnu are Krishna—especially within Krishnaism—and Rama,Template:Sfn whose stories are told in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, respectively. The adherents of Vaishnavism are generally non-ascetic, monastic, and devoted to meditative practice and ecstatic chanting.[12] Vaishnavism is characterised by diverse adherence to a number of saints, temples, and scriptures.[13] Among historical Vishnuism are the Bhagavata, Pancharatra, and Vaikhanasa traditions.

The major extant Vaishnava sampradayas include:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Minor and regional Vaishnavite schools and the principal acharyas connected with them are:Template:Sfn

Shaivism

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Shaivism focuses on Shiva

Shaivas or Shaivites are those who primarily worship Shiva as the supreme god, both immanent and transcendent. Shaivism embraces at the same time monism (specifically nondualism) and dualism. To Shaivites, Shiva is both with and without form; he is the Supreme Dancer, Nataraja; and is linga, without beginning or end. Shiva is sometimes depicted as the fierce god Bhairava. Saivists are more attracted to asceticism than devotees of other Hindu sects and may be found wandering India with ashen faces, performing self-purification rituals.[12] They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.[13]

The major schools of Shaivism include:Template:Sfn

Other branches:

A statue of Akka Mahadevi, a famous Lingayat saint, installed at her birthplace, Udathadi
  • Aaiyyanism is a religion claiming to be a form of pure Dravidian Hinduism and identifying as a Shaivite branch.

Shaktism

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Shaktism is a Goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism. From left: Parvati/Durga, Kali and Lakshmi

Shaktas worship the Mother Goddess as Shakti, in different forms. These forms may include Kali, Parvati/Durga, Lakshmi and Saraswati. The branch of Hinduism that worships the goddess Devi is called Shaktism. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the supreme power of the universe. Devi is often depicted as Parvati (the consort of Shiva) or as Lakshmi (the consort of Vishnu). She is also depicted in other manifestations, such as the protective Durga or the violent Kali. Shaktism is closely related to Tantric Hinduism, which teaches rituals and practices for the purification of the mind and body.[12]

Animal sacrifice of cockerels, goats, and, to a lesser extent, water buffaloes is practiced by Shakta devotees, mainly at temples of goddesses such as Bhavani or Kali.[20][21]

The main traditions are:

The Goddess-centric traditions within Kashmir Shaivism are Trika and Kubjika.

Smartism

Om

Template:Main Smartas treat all deities as the same, and their temples include five deities (Pancopasana) or Panchadevata as personal saguna (divine with form) manifestation of the nirguna (divine without form) Absolute, the Brahman. The nature of God is a matter of individual choice, since different manifestations of God are held to be equivalent. It is nonsectarian as it encourages the worship of any personal god along with others such as Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, and Surya.[12]

The Smarta Tradition accepts two concepts of Brahman, which are the saguna brahman – the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna brahman – the Brahman without attributes.[22] The nirguna Brahman is the unchanging Reality, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing this nirguna Brahman.[23] In this tradition, the concept of the saguna Brahman is considered to be a useful symbolism and means for those who are still on their spiritual journey. However, the saguna concept is abandoned by the fully enlightened once they realize the identity of their own soul with that of the nirguna Brahman.[23] A Smarta may choose any saguna deity (istadevata) such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Surya, Ganesha or any other, and this is viewed in Smarta Tradition as an interim step towards meditating on Om and true nature of supreme reality, thereby realizing the nirguna Brahman and its equivalence to one's own Atman, as in Advaita Vedanta.Template:Sfn

The movement is credited to Shankara, who is regarded as the greatest teacherTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn and reformer of the Smarta.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition.Template:Sfn The Sringeri Sharada Peetham in Karnataka, believed by its members to have been founded by Shankara, is still the centre of the Smarta sect for its followers. Smartas follow four other major Mathas, namely, Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Puri Govardhan Math, Dwaraka Sharada Peetham, and Jyotir Muth. All Mathas are headed by Sankaracharyas.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The traditions are:

Panchayatana puja, also known as Pancha Devi Deva Puja is a system of puja (worship) within the Smarta sampradaya.[24]

Overlap

Halbfass states that, although traditions such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",Template:Sfn there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"Template:Sfn of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".Template:Sfn It is common to find Hindus revering Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti, and celebrating festivals related to them at different times of the year. Temples often feature more than one, and Hinduism is better understood as a polycentric theosophy that leaves the choice of deity and ideas to the individual.Template:Sfn

The key concepts and practises of the four major denominations of Hinduism can be compared as follows:

Comparison of four major traditions of Hinduism
Shaiva Traditions Vaishnava Traditions Shakti Traditions Smarta Traditions Srauta Traditions References
Scriptural authority Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas Vedas and Upanishads Vedas Template:Sfn[25]
Supreme deity God Shiva God Vishnu Goddess Devi None None Template:Sfn[26]
Creator Shiva Vishnu Devi Brahman principle Brahman principle Template:Sfn[27]
Avatar Major Key concept Significant Minor Minor Template:Sfn[28][29]
Monastic life Recommends Accepts Accepts Recommends Accepts (with exceptions) Template:Sfn[30][31]
Rituals, Bhakti AffirmsTemplate:Sfn[32][33] Affirms Affirms Optional[34] Affirms [35]
Ahimsa and Vegetarianism Recommends,Template:Sfn Optional Affirms Optional Affirms except for sacrificial occasions Affirms except for sacrificial occasions [36][37]
Free will, Maya, Karma Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms Template:Sfn
Metaphysics Brahman (Shiva), Atman (Soul, Self) Brahman (Vishnu), Atman Brahman (Devi), Atman Brahman, Atman Brahman, Atman,

Karma, Dharma

Template:Sfn
Epistemology
(Pramana)		 1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony
4. Self-evident[38]		 1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony		 1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony		 1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison and analogy
4. Postulation, derivation
5. Negative/cognitive proof
6. Reliable testimony 		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison and analogy
4. Postulation, derivation
5. Negative/cognitive proof
6. Reliable testimony		 [39]Template:Sfn[40]
Philosophy Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita Shakti-advaita Advaita Purva Mimamsa [41][42]
Salvation
(Soteriology)		 Jivanmukta,
Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana[43]		 Videhamukti, Yoga,
champions householder life		 Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga,
champions monastic life 		Videhamukti, Yoga,

Dharmic Karma, champions householder life||[44][45]

Other denominations

Suryaism / Saurism

The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the Saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE.[46][47] The Konark Sun Temple was built in the mid 13th century.[48] During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink.[49][50] The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.Template:Citation needed Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form of Chhath Puja which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.

Ganapatism

Template:Main Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in which Ganesha is worshipped as the main form of the Saguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important in Maharashtra.Template:Citation needed

Indonesian Hinduism

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Hinduism dominated the island of Java and Sumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted to Islam. Only the Balinese people who formed a majority on the island of Bali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents consider Acintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.

The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymous Indonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept their agamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, the Parisada Hindu Dharma.

Shrautism

Template:Main Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna).Template:Citation needed

Kaumaram

Template:Main Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka where Kartikeya is worshipped as the Supreme God. The worshippers of Kartikeya are called Kaumaras.Template:Citation needed

Dattatreya Sampradaya

Template:Main Dattatreya Sampradaya is a Hindu denomination associated with the worship of Dattatreya as the supreme god. This denomination found in Indian states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand. Dattatreya is often considered as an avatara of three Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, collectively known as the Trimurti. Main traditions linked with Dattatreya Sampradaya are:

Sant Mat

Template:Main The Sant Mat was a group of reformer poet-sants and their adherents within Hinduism during the 14th–17th centuries who had desire for religious pluralism and non-ritualistic spirituality.Template:Sfn Due to Kabir's affiliation with Vaishnavite Ramanandi Sampradaya and certain aspects of the creed, the Sant Mat is sometimes seen as part of Vaishnavism.Template:Sfn Among its living traditions are:

Newer movements

Template:See also The Hindu new religious movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include:Template:Sfn

Sarnaism

Template:Main Sarna are sacred groves in the Indian religious traditions of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region in the states of Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam and Chhattisgarh.[54] Followers of these rituals primarily belong to the Munda, Bhumij, Kharia, Baiga, Ho, Kurukh and Santal.Template:Citation needed According to local belief, a Gram deoti or village deity resides in the sarna, where sacrifice is offered twice a year. Their belief system is called "Sarnaism", "Sarna Dharma" or "Religion of the Holy Woods".[55]

Kiratism

Template:Main The practice is also known as Kirat Veda,[56][57] Kirat-Ko Veda[58] or Kirat Ko Ved.[59] According to some scholars, such as Tom Woodhatch, it is shamanism, animistic religion or blend of shamanism, animism (e.g., ancestor worshiping of Yuma Sammang/Tagera Ningwaphumang and Paruhang/Sumnima),[60] and Shaivism.[61]

Kalash and Nuristani religion

Template:Main The Indo-Aryan Kalash people in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which some authors characterise as an archaic form of ancient Indo-Aryan religion.[62][63][64] The Nuristanis of Afghanistan and Pakistan until the late 19th century had followed a religion which was described as a form of ancient Hinduism.[65][66][67]

Contemporary Sant Mat

Template:Main Template:Distinguish The contemporary Sant Mat is a 19th-century origin movement.Template:Sfn Scholars are divided as to whether to call Radha Soami a 1) Sikh-derived or 2) Hindu–Sikh-synthesed or 3) independent version of the medieval Sant Mat as new universal religion.[68]

Slavic Vedism

Template:Main Slavic, Russian, Peterburgian Vedism or simply Vedism[69][70] are terms used to describe one of the earliest branch of Slavic Native Faith ("Rodnovery")—contemporary indigenous development of Vedic forms of religion in Russia, especially of Saint Petersburg's communities, other Slavic countries, and generally all the post-Soviet states. The word "Vedism" comes from the verb "to know" (vedatʼ)—a semantic root which is shared in Slavic and Sanskrit languages alike.[71]

Slavic Vedism involves the worship of Vedic gods, characterised by its use of indigenous Slavic rituals and Slavic names for the deities, distinguishing from other groups which have maintained a stronger bond with modern Hinduism, although Krishnaite groups often identify themselves as "Vedic" too. Also some syncretic groups within Slavic Native Faith (Slavic Neopaganism) use the term "Vedism".[72]

Cross-denominational influences

Bhakti movement

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The Bhakti movement was a theistic devotional trend that originated in the seventh-century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[73] It swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[73][74] The Bhakti movement regionally developed as Hindu denominations around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.[1][2][75] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[73][76] Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana.[77][78]

As part of the legacy of the Alvars, five Vaishnava philosophical traditions (sampradayas) have developed at the later stages.[79]

Philosophical schools

Template:Main Template:Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six [[Āstika and nāstika|Template:IAST]] (Template:Langx "orthodox") schools of thought,[80] or Template:IAST (दर्शनम्, "view"), which accept the Vedas as the supreme revealed scriptures. The schools are:

  1. Samkhya, a non theistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter.
  2. Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation, contemplation and liberation.
  3. Nyaya or logic, explores sources of knowledge. Nyāya Sūtras.
  4. Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism
  5. Mimāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy
  6. Vedanta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the 'Jnan' (knowledge) 'Kanda' (section).

The nāstika/heterodox schools are (in chronological order):

  1. Cārvāka
  2. Jainism
  3. Ājīvika
  4. Buddhism
  5. Ajñana

However, medieval philosophers like Vidyāraṇya classified Indian philosophy into sixteen schools, where schools belonging to Shaiva, Pāṇini and Raseśvara thought are included with others, and the three Vedantic schools Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita (which had emerged as distinct schools by then) are classified separately.Template:Sfn

In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages and modern times, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy, as follows:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.

Yoga varieties

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See also

Template:Commons category

References

Notes

Template:Notelist

Citations

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, Template:ISBN, pages 562–563
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti — the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, Template:ISBN, pp. 35–36.
  3. ↑ The Sociology of Religion: A Substantive and Transdisciplinary Approach{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Sage Publ.(2008). ISBN 978-1-4522-4518-8
  4. ↑ Lester Kurtz (ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, Template:ISBN, Academic Press, 2008.
  5. ↑ MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
  6. ↑ Development and Religion: Theology and Practice{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Edward Elgar(2011). ISBN 9780857930736
  7. ↑ J. McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52–53 Template:ISBN
  8. ↑ List of religious populations | Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview | Britannica, Preston, Charles. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2025-01-19.
  9. ↑ The global religious landscape: Hindus Template:Webarchive, Pew Research (2012)
  10. ↑ List of religious populations | Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview | Britannica, Preston, Charles. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2025-01-19.
  11. ↑ The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. John Wiley & Sons(2008). ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7, Quote: "it is often impossible to meaningfully distinguish between Saiva and Sakta traditions".
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies{{#if:Dubois|, Dubois}. Cosimo(2007-04-01). ISBN 9781602063365
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 HimalayanAcademy. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
  14. ↑ History of Ancient India Revisited, A Vedic-Puranic View.{{#if:Chopra|, Chopra}. BlueRose Publishers(2020-03-02)
  15. ↑ The First Spring: The Golden Age of India{{#if:Eraly|, Eraly}. Penguin Books India(2011). ISBN 978-0-670-08478-4
  16. ↑ Selva Raj and William Harman (2007), Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 165–166
  17. ↑ James G Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, pages 553–554
  18. ↑ Speaking of Śiva{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Penguin India(1973). ISBN 978-0-14-044270-0
  19. ↑ "Lingayat." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09 Jul. 2010.
  20. ↑ The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India{{#if:Fuller Christopher John|, Fuller Christopher John}. Princeton University Press(2004). ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5
  21. ↑ The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback]{{#if:J. Fuller|, J. Fuller}. Princeton University Press(26 July 2004). ISBN 0-691-12048-X
  22. ↑ Heirarchies [sic] in the Nature of God? Questioning the "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta. Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies({Template:Year).
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University
  24. ↑ Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions{{#if:Bühnemann|, Bühnemann}. BRILL Academic(2003). ISBN 978-9004129023
  25. ↑ Hindu Spirituality{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Gregorian Press(1999). ISBN 978-88-7652-818-7
  26. ↑ Introduction to World Religions{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Fortress Press(2013). ISBN 978-0-8006-9970-3
  27. ↑ Advaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism: The Philosophy of Madhusudana Sarasvati{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2013). ISBN 978-1-134-15774-7
  28. ↑ Religious Diversity in Singapore{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore(2008). ISBN 978-981-230-754-5
  29. ↑ Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rodopi(2002). ISBN 90-420-1510-1
  30. ↑ Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, p. 332 with note 68.
  31. ↑ The Samnyasa Upanisads{{#if:Olivelle|, Olivelle}. Oxford University Press(1992). ISBN 978-0195070453
  32. ↑ Shaivas. Overview Of World Religions. Philtar. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
  33. ↑ Lingayat Dharma (Veerashaiva Religion){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Veerashaiva Samaja of North America(2007)
  34. ↑ The Yoga of Spiritual Devotion: A Modern Translation of the Narada Bhakti Sutras{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Inner Traditions(1998). ISBN 978-0-89281-664-4
  35. ↑ Bhakti in Hindu Cultures. The Journal of Hindu Studies({Template:Year).
  36. ↑ Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Lantern(2011). ISBN 978-1-59056-281-9
  37. ↑ Plants of Life, Plants of Death{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. University of Wisconsin Press(1998). ISBN 978-0-299-15904-7
  38. ↑ Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Motilal Banarsidass(1973). ISBN 978-81-208-1771-5
  39. ↑ John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 238
  40. ↑ Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 245-248.
  41. ↑ Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls{{#if:McDaniel|, McDaniel}. Oxford University Press(2004). ISBN 978-0-19-534713-5
  42. ↑ The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs: The Integration of Ascetic Lineages Into an Order{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Brill(2006). ISBN 978-90-04-15211-3
  43. ↑ Tantra, Yoga of Ecstasy: the Sadhaka's Guide to Kundalinin and the Left-Hand Path{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Maithuna Publications(2012). ISBN 9780983784722
  44. ↑ Living Liberation in Hindu Thought{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. SUNY Press(1996). ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4
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  51. ↑ Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. BRILL(2005). ISBN 978-90-04-14757-7
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  56. ↑ p. 56 Kiratese at a Glance By Gopal Man Tandukar
  57. ↑ p. xxv A Grammar of Limbu By Geordefine sungge van Driem
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  60. ↑ "History and Culture of the Kirat" by I.S.Chemjong
  61. ↑ p. 535 Nepal By Tom Woodhatch
  62. ↑ The Vedas: Texts, Language and Ritual{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Forsten(2004)
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  65. ↑ Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia{{#if:Minahan|, Minahan}. ABC-CLIO(10 February 2014). ISBN 9781610690188
  66. ↑ A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the Mysterious Afghan Hinterland{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. I.B. Tauris(18 April 2006). ISBN 9781845111755
  67. ↑ No Way Out: A Story of Valor in the Mountains of Afghanistan{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Berkley Caliber(31 December 2012). ISBN 9780425253403
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  69. ↑ Michael F. Strmiska. Modern Paganism in World Cultures. ABC-CLIO, 2005. p. 222: "In addition to Ukrainian Paganism, Russian and Pan-Slavic varieties of Paganism and "Slavic Vedism" can also be found in Ukraine."
  70. ↑ Portal "Religion and Law". Монастырь «Собрание тайн» или «Дивья лока»: второе пришествие индуизма в России? Template:Webarchive. 2013-04-30
  71. ↑ Paganism, Traditionalism, Nationalism: Narratives of Russian Rodnoverie{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2016). ISBN 9781472460271
  72. ↑ Robert A. Saunders, Vlad Strukov. Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation. The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, 2010. p. 412.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Schomer and McLeod (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pp. 1–2.
  74. ↑ Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. SUNY Press(1995). ISBN 978-0-7914-2025-6
  75. ↑ Wendy Doniger (2009), Bhakti, Encyclopædia Britannica; The Four Denomination of Hinduism Template:Webarchive Himalayan Academy (2013)
  76. ↑ Christian Novetzke (2007), Bhakti and Its Public, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, page 255–272
  77. ↑ Catherine Robinson (2005), Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 28–30
  78. ↑ Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 26–32, 217–218
  79. ↑ Religions of South Asia: An Introduction{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2006)
  80. ↑ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see:Template:HarvTemplate:HarvTemplate:Harv

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